View source for Cannabis (drug)

{{Redirect|Marijuana}}
{{Dablink|For the plant genus, see [[Cannabis]]. For other uses of cannabis, see [[Cannabis#Industrial and personal uses|Cannabis - Industrial and personal uses]].}}

{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}{{Pp-move-indef}}
{{taxobox
| name = ''Cannabis''
| image = Macro cannabis bud.jpg
| image_caption = Dried flowers from the [[Cannabis|''Cannabis sativa'']] plant. Note the visible [[trichomes]] (commonly known as "crystals"), which contain large quantities of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]], [[Cannabidiol|CBD]] and other [[cannabinoids]].
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| phylum = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Rosales]]
| familia = [[Cannabaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Cannabis]]''
| species = ''[[Cannabis sativa|C. sativa]]''
| binomial = ''Cannabis sativa'' L.<ref name="ars-grin.gov">{{cite web|author=John H. Wiersema |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?8862 |title=Cannabis sativa information from NPGS/GRIN |publisher=Ars-grin.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><br />
'''''Cannabis indica''''' Lam. (putative)<ref name="ars-grin.gov"/>
| binomial_authority =
|}}
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'''Cannabis''', also known as '''marijuana''',<ref>See, [[marijuana (etymology)|Etymology of ''marijuana'']].</ref> '''marihuana''',<ref name="bookSpanish Word Histories or and Mysteries">{{cite book | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | isbn = 0618910549, 9780618910540 | last = Company | first = Houghton Mifflin | coauthors = American Heritage Dictionaries | title = Spanish Word Histories and Mysteries | date = 2007-11-14 | page = 142 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=VTYBbGybtNEC&pg=PA142}}</ref> among many other names,{{cref|a}} refers to any number of [[dosage form|preparations]] of the [[cannabis|''Cannabis'' plant]] intended for use as a [[psychoactive drug]]. The word marijuana comes from the Mexican Spanish ''mariguana''.<ref>{{ShorterOxfordEnglishDictionary}}</ref> According to the [[United Nations]], cannabis "is the most widely used illicit substance in the world."<ref name='UN-WDR-2010'>{{cite book | last1 = UNODC | title = World Drug Report 2010 | publisher = United Nations Publication | page = 198 | url = http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html | accessdate = 2010-07-19}}</ref><!-- For the US only: "Marijuana...a dry, shredded green and brown mix of flowers, stems, seeds, and leaves derived from the hemp plant Cannabis sativa...is the most commonly abused illicit drug in the United States"[http://www.drugabuse.gov/Infofacts/marijuana.html] -->

The typical herbal form of cannabis consists of the [[flower]]s and subtending [[leaf|leaves]] and [[plant stem|stalks]] of [[plant sexuality|mature]] [[pistillate]] of [[female]] plants. The [[resin]]ous form of the drug is known as [[hashish]] (or merely as 'hash').<ref name="urlTypes of Cannabis Available in the United Kingdom">{{cite web | url = http://www.idmu.co.uk/can.htm | title = Types of ''Cannabis'' Available in the United Kingdom (UK) | author = Matthew J. Atha (Independent Drug Monitoring Unit)}}</ref>

The major [[psychoactive]] [[chemical compound]] in cannabis is [[tetrahydrocannabinol|Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabinol]] (commonly abbreviated as THC). At least 66 other [[cannabinoids]] are also present in cannabis, including [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), [[cannabinol]] (CBN) and [[tetrahydrocannabivarin]] (THCV) among many others, which are believed to result in different effects from those of [[THC]] alone.<ref name="pmid19124693">{{cite journal
|author=Fusar-Poli P, Crippa JA, Bhattacharyya S, ''et al.''
|title=Distinct effects of {delta}9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on neural activation during emotional processing
|journal=[[Archives of General Psychiatry]]
|volume=66
|issue=1
|pages=95–105
|year=2009
|month=January
|pmid=19124693
|doi=10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519
|url=http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19124693
|accessdate=2009-09-26}}</ref>

Cannabis use has been found to have occurred as long ago as the [[3rd millenium BC|third millennium B.C.]]<ref name="bookLost Civilisations of the Stone Age">{{cite book | author = Rudgley, Richard | authorlink = Richard Rudgley | year = 1998 | title = Lost Civilisations of the Stone Age. | isbn = 0-6848-5580-1 | publisher = Free Press | location = New York }}</ref> In modern times, the drug has been used for [[recreational drug use|recreational]], [[Religious and spiritual use of cannabis|religious]] or [[spiritual use of cannabis|spiritual]], and [[medical cannabis|medicinal]] purposes. The UN estimated that in 2004 about 4% of the [[world population|world's adult population]] (162 million people) use cannabis annually, and about 0.6% (22.5 million) use it on a daily basis.<ref name="articleUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime">{{Cite book | author = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | year = 2006 | url = http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_biggest_market.pdf | format = PDF | title = ''Cannabis'': Why We Should Care. | journal = World Drug Report | volume = 1 | isbn = 9-2114-8214-3 | publisher = United Nations | location = S.l. | page = 14}}</ref> The [[drug possession|possession]], [[Recreational drug use|use]], or [[Illegal drug trade|sale]] of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids became [[legal issues of cannabis|illegal]] in most parts of the [[world]] in the early [[20th century]]. Since then, some [[countries]] have intensified the [[Law enforcement agency|enforcement]] of cannabis [[prohibition (drugs)|prohibition]], while others have reduced it.

== History ==
[[Image:Chinese-ma-hemp.png|thumb|The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in Taiwan.<ref name="bookPsychedelics Encyclopedia">{{cite book | author = Stafford, Peter | title = Psychedelics Encyclopedia | publisher = Ronin Publishing, Inc. | location = Berkeley, California | year = 1992 | isbn = 0-914171-51-8 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=Ec5hNgYWHtkC&printsec=frontcover }}</ref> Má ([[Pinyin]] pronunciation), the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] expression for hemp, is a [[pictograph]] of two plants under a shelter.<ref name="Matthews2007">{{cite book | title = Learning Chinese Characters | last1 = Matthews | first1 = A. | last2 = Matthews | first2 = L. | year = 2007 | page = 336 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=YweFHwPd05EC&pg=PA336&lpg=PA336&dq=hemp+wood+shelter | isbn = 9780804838160}}</ref>]]
Cannabis is [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] to [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia]].<ref>"Marijuana and the Cannabinoids", ElSohly (p.8)</ref> Evidence of the [[inhalation]] of cannabis [[smoke]] can be found in the [[3rd millennium BC|3rd millennium B.C.]], as indicated by [[charred]] cannabis [[seed]]s found in a [[ritual]] [[brazier]] at an [[ancient]] [[burial site]] in present day [[Romania]].<ref name="bookLost Civilisations of the Stone Age"/> Cannabis is also known to have been used by the ancient [[Hindus]] and [[Nihang|Nihang Sikhs]] of [[India]] and [[Nepal]] thousands of years ago. The herb was called ''ganjika'' in [[Sanskrit]] (गांजा/গাঁজা ''ganja'' in modern [[Indic languages]]).<ref name="bookFlashbacks">{{cite book | author = Leary, Thimothy | year = 1990 | title = Flashbacks | editor = Tarcher & Putnam | isbn = 0-8747-7870-0 | publisher = G.P. Putnam's Sons | location = New York}}</ref><ref name="pmid17759460">{{cite book | year = 1911 | url = http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hemp | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition = 11th | author = Miller, Ga | volume = 34 | issue = 883 | pages = 761–762 | pmid = 17759460 | doi=10.1126/science.34.883.761 | journal = Science (New York, N.Y.)}}</ref> The ancient drug [[soma]], mentioned in the [[Veda]]s, was sometimes associated with cannabis.<ref name="bookThe Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances">{{cite book | author = Rudgley, Richard | year = 1998 | url = http://www.huxley.net/soma/index.html | title = The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances | editor = Little, Brown, et al.}}</ref>

Cannabis was also known to the [[History of the Assyrian people|ancient Assyrians]], who discovered its psychoactive properties through the [[Aryan]]s.<ref>{{cite book | author=Franck, Mel | title=Marijuana Grower's Guide| publisher=Red Eye Press | year=1997| isbn=0-9293-4903-2}} p. 3.</ref> Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it ''qunubu'' (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word "cannabis".<ref>{{cite book | author=Rubin, Vera D.| title=Cannabis and Culture| publisher=Campus Verlag | year=1976| isbn=3-5933-7442-0}} p. 305.</ref> Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the [[Scythia]]ns and [[Thracians]]/[[Dacia]]ns, whose [[shamanism|shamans]] (the ''[[kapnobatai]]''—"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of [[trance]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Cunliffe, Barry W.| title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe| publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001| isbn=0-1928-5441-0}} p. 405.</ref> Members of the cult of [[Dionysus]], believed to have originated in [[Thrace]] ([[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]]), are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old [[mummy|mummified]] [[shaman]] in the northwestern [[Xinjiang]] Uygur Autonomous Region of [[China]].<ref name="peoplesdaily">{{cite web|year=2006|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200612/23/eng20061223_335258.html|title=Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman|publisher=People's Daily Online}}</ref><ref name="jiang2006a">{{cite journal|author=Hong-En Jiang ''et al.''|year=2006|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8D-4K7WC0F-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F06%2F2006&_rdoc=17&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235084%232006%23998919996%23636769%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5084&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=23&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3e6ac8940b4b86b94935cd7a7d7bc19d|title=A new insight into ''Cannabis sativa'' (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=108|issue=3|pages=414–422|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034|pmid=16879937}}</ref>

[[Image:Cannabissativadior.jpg|thumb|left|''Cannabis sativa'' from [[Vienna Dioscurides]], 512 A.D.]]

Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in [[pharmacological cult]]s around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at [[Pazyryk]] suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the [[Scythians]] occurred during the 5th to 2nd century B.C., confirming previous historical reports by [[Herodotus]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Walton, Robert P. | title=Marijuana, America's New Drug Problem| publisher=J. B. Lippincott | year=1938}} p. 6.</ref> One writer has claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient [[Jews]] and early [[Christians]]<ref name="urlTypes of Cannabis Available in the United Kingdom"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2633187.stm|title=Cannabis linked to Biblical healing | work=BBC News | date=2003-01-06 | accessdate=2009-12-31}}</ref> due to the similarity between the Hebrew word "''qannabbos''" ("''cannabis''") and the Hebrew phrase "''qené bósem''" ("aromatic cane"). It was used by [[Muslims]] in various [[Sufi]] orders as early as the [[Mamluk]] period, for example by the [[Qalandar]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Le haschich et l'extase|author=[[Ibn Taymiyya]]|isbn=2-8416-1174-4|year=2001|publisher=Albouraq|location=Beyrouth}}</ref>

A study published in the ''[[South African Journal of Science]]'' showed that "pipes dug up from the garden of [[Shakespeare]]'s home in [[Stratford upon Avon]] contain traces of cannabis."<ref name='Shakespeare-BBC-2001'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Bard 'used drugs for inspiration' | date=2001-03-01 | publisher=BBC | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1195939.stm | work =[[BBC News]] | pages = | accessdate = 2009-08-07 | language = }}</ref> The chemical analysis was carried out after researchers hypothesized that the "noted weed" mentioned in [[Sonnet 76]] and the "journey in my head" from [[Sonnet 27]] could be references to cannabis and the use thereof.<ref name='Shakespeare-CNN-2001'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= |authorlink= | title= Drugs clue to Shakespeare's genius | date=2001-03-01 | publisher=[[Turner Broadcasting System]] | url =http://edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/UK/03/01/shakespeare.cannabis/ | work =[[CNN]] | pages = | accessdate = 2009-08-07 | language = }}</ref>

Cannabis was criminalized in various countries beginning in the early 20th century. It was outlawed in [[South Africa]] in 1911, in [[Jamaica]] (then a British colony) in 1913, and in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[New Zealand]] in the 1920s.<ref name=AlterNet>{{cite web |url=http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/77339/?page=entire |title=Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory}}</ref> [[Canada]] criminalized marijuana in the Opium and Drug Act of 1923, before any reports of use of the drug in Canada. In 1925 a compromise was made at an international conference in [[Haag]] about the [[International Opium Convention]] that banned exportation of "Indian hemp" to countries that had prohibited its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes". It also required parties to "exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicit international traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/e1920/willoughby.htm |title=W.W. WILLOUGHBY: OPIUM AS AN INTERNATIONAL PROBLEM, BALTIMORE, THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS, 1925 |publisher=Druglibrary.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> In the [[United States]] the first restrictions for sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in [[District of Columbia]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/woodward.htm |title=Statement Of Dr. William C. Woodward |publisher=Druglibrary.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> In 1937, the [[Marijuana Transfer Tax Act]] was passed, and prohibited the production of hemp in addition to marijuana. The reasons that [[hemp]] was also included in this law are disputed. The Federal Bureau of Narcotics agents reported that fields with [[hemp]] were also used as a source for marijuana dealers.  Other authors claim have claimed that it was passed in order to destroy the hemp industry,<ref name="nafta-neocolonialism-129">{{cite book|last=French|first=Laurence|coauthors=Magdaleno Manzanárez|title=NAFTA & neocolonialism: comparative criminal, human & social justice|publisher=University Press of America|year=2004|page=129|isbn=9780761828907|url=http://books.google.com/?id=4ozF1Yg-c4MC&pg=PA129}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Understanding marijuana: a new look at the scientific evidence|author=Mitchell Earlywine|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=9780195182958|page=24|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=r9wPbxMAG8cC&pg=PA24}}</ref><ref name="under-influence-55">{{cite book|last=Peet|first=Preston|title=Under the influence: the disinformation guide to drugs|publisher=The Disinformation Company|year=2004|page=55|isbn=9781932857009|url=http://books.google.com/?id=uC0_YznYjScC&pg=PA55}}</ref> largely as an effort of businessmen [[Andrew Mellon]], [[Randolph Hearst]], and the [[Du Pont family]].<ref name="nafta-neocolonialism-129" /><ref name="under-influence-55" />  With the invention of the [[decorticator]], hemp became a very cheap substitute for the [[paper pulp]] that was used in the newspaper industry.<ref name="nafta-neocolonialism-129" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Bound in twine: the history and ecology of the henequen-wheat complex for Mexico and the American and Canadian Plains, 1880-1950|author=Sterling Evans|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2007|isbn=9781585445967|page=27|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_wFkZgyuGFAC&pg=PA27}}</ref> Hearst felt that this was a threat to his extensive [[timber]] holdings. Mellon, [[Secretary of the Treasury]] and the wealthiest man in America, had invested heavily in the Du Pont families new synthetic fiber, [[nylon]], which was also being outcompeted by hemp.<ref name="nafta-neocolonialism-129" />

== Forms ==
=== Natural herbal form ===
[[Image:Bubba Kush.jpg|thumb|150px|Dried [[Cannabis]] flowers in natural herbal form.]]
The terms ''cannabis'' or ''[[marijuana (etymology)|marijuana]]'' generally refer to the dried flowers and subtending leaves and stems of the female cannabis plant.  This is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 22% THC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/12/high-times-in-a/ |title=High Times in Ag Science: Marijuana More Potent Than Ever &#124; Wired Science |publisher=Wired.com |date=2008-12-22 |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Marijuana | title = Marijuana- Definitions from Dictionary.com | publisher = dictionary.reference.com}}</ref> In contrast, cannabis strains used to produce industrial hemp contain less than 1% THC and are thus not valued for recreational use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naihc.org/hemp_information/hemp_facts.html |title=Hemp Facts |publisher=Naihc.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref>

===Concentrated THC===
==== Kief ====
{{Main|Kief}}
Kief is a powder, rich in [[trichome]]s, which can be [[sieve|sifted]] from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants and either consumed in powder form or compressed to produce cakes of hashish.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cannabisculture.com/v2/articles/4220.html |title=Kief &#124; Cannabis Culture Magazine |publisher=Cannabisculture.com |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref>

==== Hashish ====
[[Image:Hashish-2.jpg|thumb|150px|Hashish]]
{{Main|Hashish}}
Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash) is a concentrated [[resin]] produced from the flowers of the female cannabis plant. Hash can often be more potent than marijuana and can be smoked or chewed.<ref name="urlHashish - Definitions from Dictionary.com">{{cite web | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Hashish | title = Hashish - Definitions from Dictionary.com | publisher=dictionary.reference.com}}</ref> It varies in color from black to golden brown depending upon purity.

==== Hash oil ====
{{Main|Hash oil}}
Hash oil, or [[honey oil|"butane honey oil" (BHO)]], is a mix of [[essential oils]] and [[resins]] extracted from mature cannabis foliage through the use of various [[solvent]]s. It has a high proportion of cannabinoids (ranging from 40–90%).<ref name="urlHash Oil Info">{{cite web | url = http://www.a1b2c3.com/drugs/hash005.htm | title = Hash Oil Info.}}</ref> and is used in a variety of [[cannabis foods]].

Medicinally, many have found concentrated hash oil to possess curative properties.  Reports from around the world, but mostly concentrated in the United States and Canada, indicate there are people who have cured themselves of cancer, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, fibromyalgia, chronic pain, irritable bowel syndrome, and other diseases by ingesting large amounts of hash oil.  Documentaries such as "Run From the Cure", "Cured: A Cannabis Story", and the book "Live Free or Die" by Shona Banda relate experiences with the medicine.

====Residue (resin)====
[[Image:Resin.jpg|thumb|150px|Residue collected from a pipe]]

Because of THC's [[adhesive]] properties, a sticky residue, most commonly known as "resin", builds up inside utensils used to [[smoking|smoke]] cannabis. It has [[Tar (tobacco residue)|tar]]-like properties but still contains THC as well as other cannabinoids. This buildup has some of the psychoactive properties of cannabis but is more difficult to smoke without discomfort caused to throat and lungs. This tar may also contain [[Cannabinol|CBN]], which is a breakdown product of THC. Cannabis users typically only smoke residue when cannabis is unavailable. Glass pipes may be water-steamed at a low temperature prior to scraping in order to make the residue easier to remove.<ref name="Pipe Residue Information">{{cite web | url = http://www.cannabisculture.com/v2/articles/3603.html | title = Pipe Residue Information.}}</ref> Alcohol is an effective solvent for cleaning residue from paraphernalia.

== Potency ==
According to the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] (UNODC), "the amount of [[THC]] present in a cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency."<ref name="urlWhy Does Cannabis Potency Matter?">{{cite web | url = http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/2009/June/why-does-cannabis-potency-matter.html | title = Why Does Cannabis Potency Matter? | date = 2009-06-29 | publisher = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime}}</ref> The three main forms of cannabis products are the herb (marijuana), resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that marijuana often contains 5% THC content, resin "can contain up to 20% THC content", and that "Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC content."<ref name="urlWhy Does Cannabis Potency Matter?"/>

A [[research|scientific study]] published in 2000 in the Journal of Forensic Sciences (JFS) found that the potency (THC content) of confiscated cannabis in the [[United States]] (US) rose from "approximately 3.3% in 1983 and 1984", to "4.47% in 1997". It also concluded that "other major cannabinoids (i.e., [[Cannabidiol|CBD]], [[Cannabinol|CBN]], and [[Cannabichromene|CBC]])" (other chemicals in cannabis) "showed no significant change in their concentration over the years".<ref name="pmid10641915">{{cite journal | author = ElSohly MA, Ross SA, Mehmedic Z, Arafat R, Yi B, Banahan BF | title = Potency Trends of delta9-THC and Other Cannabinoids in Confiscated Marijuana from 1980-1997. | journal = [[Journal of Forensic Sciences]] | volume = 45 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–30 | year = 2000 | month = January | pmid = 10641915}}</ref> More recent research undertaken at the University of Mississippi's Potency Monitoring Project<ref>[http://news.olemiss.edu/index.php/Ole-Miss-News/News-Releases/marijuanapotency051409.html Olemiss.edu]{{Dead link|date=January 2010}}</ref> has found that average THC levels in cannabis samples between 1975 and 2007 have increased from 4% in 1983 to 9.6% in 2007.

[[Australia]]'s [[National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre]] (NCPIC) states that the buds (flowers) of the female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have "much lower THC levels".<ref name="urlCannabis Potency">{{cite web | url = http://ncpic.org.au/workforce/cannabisinfo/factsheets/article/cannabis-potency | title = Cannabis Potency. | publisher = National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre}}</ref> The UN states that the leaves can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC.<ref name="urlWhy Does Cannabis Potency Matter?"/>

After revisions to [[Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom|cannabis rescheduling]] in the UK, the government moved cannabis back from a class C to a class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance of high potency cannabis. They believe skunk accounts for between 70 and 80% of samples seized by police <ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7386889.stm |title=BBC: Cannabis laws to be strengthened. May 2008 20:55 UK |publisher=BBC News |date=2008-05-07 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> (despite the fact that skunk can sometimes be incorrectly mistaken for all types of female herbal cannabis).<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/abstract/195/6/488|last1=Di Forti|first1=M|last2=Morgan|first2=C|last3=Dazzan|first3=P|last4=Pariante|first4=C|last5=Mondelli|first5=V|last6=Marques|first6=TR|last7=Handley|first7=R|last8=Luzi|first8=S|last9=Russo|first9=M |title=High-potency cannabis and the risk of psychosis - Di Forti et al. 195 (6): 488 - The British Journal of Psychiatry |doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.109.064220|pmc=2801827|pmid=19949195 |publisher=Bjp.rcpsych.org|pages=488–91|issue=6 |date= |volume=195|journal=The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science|accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref>

It is noted that one of the earliest strains of skunk to appear was that of "SKUNK #1", which has been inbred since 1978,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cgi.dutch-passion.nl/index.php?p=seeds&grow=1 |title=Dutch-Passion - Power Plant ®, Powerplant (mostly Sativa) was developed in 1997 from new South African genetics.|publisher=Cgi.dutch-passion.nl |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> but high potency herbal cannabis has been around even longer.

According to the "Talk to FRANK" (UK) website:
<blockquote>
Recently, there has been an increased availability of strong herbal cannabis, containing on average 2-3 times the amount of the active compound, tetrahydrocannabinol or THC, as compared to the traditional imported ‘weed’. This strong cannabis includes:‘sinsemilla’ (a bud grown in the absence of male plants and which has no seeds); ‘homegrown’; ‘skunk’, which has a characteristic strong smell; and imported ‘[[netherweed]]’...
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
...it may not be possible to tell whether a particular sample of 'skunk' or ‘homegrown’ or ‘sinsemilla’ will have a higher potency than an equal amount of traditional herbal cannabis.
</blockquote><ref name="talktofrank.com"/>
Of course, "homegrown", "netherweed" and "sinsemilla" are not always "strong", and not every strain of cannabis with a "characteristic strong smell" can be accurately named "skunk". "Traditional herbal cannabis" or "weed", has on the whole, always been subjectively "strong".

While commentators have warned that greater cannabis "strength" could represent a health risk, others have noted that users readily learn to compensate by [[One hitter (smoking)|downsizing their dosage]], thus benefiting from reductions in smoking side-hazards such as heat shock or carbon monoxide.

=== Adulterants ===

[[Adulterant]]s in cannabis are less common than in other recreational drugs {{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}. [[Chalk]] (in the Netherlands) and glass particles (in the UK) have been used at times to make cannabis appear to be higher quality.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/digitaaldepot/BriefrapportWiet.pdf |title= Electronenmicroscopisch onderzoek van vervuilde wietmonsters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/hss_md_3-2007.pdf |title=Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Contamination of herbal or 'skunk-type' cannabis with glass beads}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/hss_md_11-2007__update.pdf |title=Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety - Update on seizures of cannabis contaminated with glass particles}}</ref> Increasing the weight of [[hashish]] products in Germany with [[lead]] caused [[lead intoxication]] in at least 29 users.<ref name="pmid18403778">{{cite journal |author=Busse F, Omidi L, Timper K, ''et al.'' |title=Lead poisoning due to adulterated marijuana |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=358 |issue=15 |pages=1641–2 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=18403778 |doi=10.1056/NEJMc0707784}}</ref> In the Netherlands two chemical analogs of [[Sildenafil]] ([[Viagra]]) were found in adulterated marijuana.<ref name="pmid18945564">{{cite journal |author=Venhuis BJ, de Kaste D |title=Sildenafil analogs used for adulterating marijuana |journal=Forensic Sci. Int. |volume=182 |issue=1-3 |pages=e23–4 |year=2008 |month=November |pmid=18945564 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.002}}</ref>

* "Soap-Bar": according to both the "Talk to FRANK" website and the UKCIA website, "perhaps the most common type of cannabis found in the UK" can contain turpentine, tranquillizers, boot polish, henna and animal faeces - amongst several other things.<ref name="talktofrank.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.talktofrank.com/drugs.aspx?id=172 |title=FRANK - Cannabis |publisher=Talktofrank.com |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukcia.org/activism/soapbar.php |title=UKCIA Soapbar warning - cannabis conamination - don't buy soapbar! |publisher=Ukcia.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> One small study of five "soap-bar" samples seized by UK Customs in 2001 found huge adulteration by many toxic substances, including soil, glue, engine oil and animal faeces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lifelineproject.co.uk/Dr-Russell-Newcome-on-the-ACMD-report-on-cannabis_25.php |title=Feature - Dr Russell Newcome on the ACMD report on cannabis : 2006-02-07 |publisher=Lifeline Project |date=2006-02-07 |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref>

== Routes of administration ==
[[Image:Volcano Vaporizer.jpg|upright|thumb|left|The ''[[Volcano Vaporizer]]''.  The balloon (top) fills with vapors that are then inhaled.]]
[[Image:Spliff Joint Twig Dooby Jay .jpg|thumb|A 700 mg cannabis cigarette, or "[[joint (cannabis)|joint]]".  Temperatures can reach 700°C., destroying cannabinoids but causing "drug effects" attributed to the cannabis.]]
[[Image:Midwakh.JPG|thumb|A narrow, screened [[One hitter (smoking)|single-toke utensil]], such as the [[midwakh]] (shown here), [[kiseru]] or [[sebsi]], permits "vaporizing" a 25-mg. low-temperature serving of pre-sifted herb, minimizing combustion to protect economy and health.]]
{{Main|Cannabis consumption}}

Cannabis is consumed in many different ways, most of which involve [[smoking|inhaling smoke]] from [[Cannabis smoking|pipes]], [[bong]]s (small pipes with water chambers), paper-wrapped [[joint (cannabis)|joints]] or tobacco-leaf-wrapped [[blunt (cigar)|blunts]].

Cannabis has also been used as an active ingredient in tablets, extracts, tinctures and compound medicines that were professionally formulated, manufactured, and sold to physicians and hospitals, as discussed below in 'Medical use'.

=== Vaporizer ===

A [[vaporizer]] heats herbal cannabis to {{convert|365|–|410|°F|°C}}, causing the active ingredients to evaporate into a [[gas]] without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is {{convert|390.4|°F|°C}} at 760 mmHg pressure).<ref name="urlChemSpider - THC">{{cite web | url = http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.15266.html | title = ChemSpider - THC }}</ref> A lower proportion of toxic chemicals is released than by smoking, depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. This method of consuming cannabis produces markedly different effects than smoking due to the flash points of different cannabinoids; for example, CBN has a flash point of {{convert|212.7|°C|°F}}<ref name="urlChemSpider - Cannabinol">{{cite web | url = http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.2447.html | title = ChemSpider - Cannabinol }}</ref> and would normally be present in smoke but might not be present in vapor.

As another alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. However, the cannabis or its extract must be sufficiently heated or [[dehydrate]]d to cause [[decarboxylation]] of its most abundant cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), into psychoactive [[THC]].<ref name="urlDecarboxylation - Does Marijuana Have to be Heated to Become Psychoactive?">{{cite web | url = http://www.cannabisculture.com/articles/2794.html | title = Decarboxylation - Does Marijuana Have to be Heated to Become Psychoactive? }}</ref>

Cannabinoids can be [[leaching (chemical science)|leached]] from cannabis plant matter using high-[[alcoholic proof|proof]] [[herbalism#Routes of administration|spirits]] (often [[neutral grain spirit|grain alcohol]]) to create a [[tincture]], often referred to as [[Green Dragon (drink)|Green Dragon]].

Cannabis can also be consumed as a [[cannabis tea|tea]]. THC is [[lipophilic]] and only slightly [[water]] [[solubility|soluble]] (with a solubility of 2.8&nbsp;mg per liter),<ref name="Physical Properties - Dronabinol">{{cite web | url = http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ProxyServlet?objectHandle=Search&actionHandle=getAll3DMViewFiles&nextPage=jsp%2Fcommon%2FChemFull.jsp%3FcalledFrom%3Dlite&chemid=001972083&formatType=_3D | title=ChemIDplus Lite | publisher=chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> so tea is made by first adding a [[saturated fat]] to hot water (i.e. [[cream]] or any [[milk]] except skim) with a small amount of cannabis, [[green tea|green]] or [[black tea]] leaves and [[honey]] or [[sugar]], steeped for approximately 5 minutes.

== Effects ==

<!-- ***PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at [[Effects of cannabis]]. THANKS. -->

[[Image:Bodily effects of cannabis.png|thumb|300px|right|Main short-term physical effects of cannabis.]]
{{Main|Effects of cannabis}}
Cannabis has [[psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] and [[physiological]] effects when consumed. The minimum amount of [[THC]] required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10&nbsp;micrograms per kilogram of body weight.<ref name="The Tolerance Factor">{{cite web | url = http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt | title = Marijuana and the Brain, Part II: The Tolerance Factor}}</ref> Aside from a subjective change in perception and, most notably, mood, the most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment of short-term [[episodic memory]], working memory, [[Motor coordination|psychomotor coordination]], and concentration.<ref name=memoryhindered>{{cite journal |author=Riedel G, Davies SN |title=Cannabinoid function in learning, memory and plasticity |journal=Handb Exp Pharmacol | issue=168 |pages=445–477 |year=2005 |pmid=16596784|url=http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=chapter&issn=0171-2004&volume=&page=445}}</ref> Long-term effects are less clear.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6W7F-4F2V4WS-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=b92fd07057e46eea44d2a4ef5d33d744 |title=Long-Term Effects of Exposure to Cannabis |publisher=Sciencedirect.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TBR-4CY0JSM-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=95a842fef02272cc8b862ad11cc89cb8 |title=Adverse Effects of Cannabis on Health: An Update of the Literature Since 1996 |publisher=Sciencedirect.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref>

=== Classification ===

{{Main|Effects of cannabis#Psychoactive effects|l1=Psychoactive effects}}

While many drugs clearly fall into the category of either [[stimulant]], [[depressant]], or [[hallucinogen]], cannabis exhibits a mix of all properties, perhaps leaning the most towards hallucinogenic or [[psychedelic drug|psychedelic]] properties, though with other effects quite pronounced as well. Though THC is typically considered the primary active component of the cannabis plant, various [[research|scientific studies]] have suggested that certain other cannabinoids like CBD may also play a significant role in its psychoactive effects.<ref name="bookPsychedelics Encyclopedia">{{cite book | author = Stafford, Peter | title = Psychedelics Encyclopedia. | year = 1992 | isbn = 0914171518 | publisher = Ronin Publishing, Inc | location = Berkeley, California, United States}}</ref><ref name="bookDrugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology (5th Edition)">{{cite book | author = McKim, William A | title = Drugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology (5th Edition). | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2002 | isbn = 0-13-048118-1 | page = 400}}</ref><ref name="urlInformation on Drugs of Abuse">{{cite web | title = Information on Drugs of Abuse. | work = Commonly Abused Drug Chart | url = http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html}}</ref>

<!-- === Health issues ===

This section is designed to be a summary of the health issues presented in the "Effects of cannabis" article. Add all other info, including specific studies to [[Effects of cannabis]]-->

=== Medical use ===
{{Main|Medical cannabis}}

Cannabis used medically does have several well-documented beneficial effects. Among these are: the amelioration of [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], stimulation of [[hunger]] in [[chemotherapy]] and [[AIDS]] patients, lowered intraocular eye pressure (shown to be effective for treating [[glaucoma]]), as well as general [[analgesic]] effects (pain reliever).{{cref|b}}

Cannabis was manufactured and sold by U.S. pharmaceutical companies from the 1880s through the 1930s, but the lack of documented information on the frequency and effectiveness of its use makes it difficult to evaluate its medicinal value. Cannabis in the form of a tincture and a fluid extract is documented in a 1929-30 Parke Davis & Co catalog,<ref>''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company''. Detroit: Parke, Davis & Co.</ref> and is listed as an active ingredient in ten products for cough, colic, neuralgia, cholera mordus and other medical conditions, as well as a "narcotic, analgesic, and sedative". The catalog also lists compound medications containing cannabis that in some cases were apparently formulated by medical doctors, in its ''Pills and Tablets'' section.

As cannabis is further legalized for medicinal use, it is possible that some of the foregoing compound medicines, whose formulas have been copied exactly as published, may be scientifically tested to determine whether they are effective medications.

Less confirmed individual studies also have been conducted indicating cannabis to be beneficial to a gamut of conditions running from [[multiple sclerosis]] to [[Major depressive disorder|depression]]. Synthesized [[cannabinoids]] are also sold as prescription drugs, including Marinol ([[dronabinol]] in the United States and Germany) and Cesamet ([[nabilone]] in Canada, Mexico, The United States and The United Kingdom).{{cref|b}}

Currently, the [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) has not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease in the United States, largely because good quality scientific evidence for its use from U.S. studies is lacking; however, a major barrier to acquiring the necessary evidence is the lack of federal funding for this kind of research.<ref>{{cite news|last=Harris|first=G.|title=Researchers find study of medical marijuana discouraged |newspaper=New York Times|location=New York|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/19/health/policy/19marijuana.html?hpw|date=18 January 2010|accessdate=19 January 2010}}</ref> Regardless, thirteen states have legalized cannabis for medical use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=3387 |title=Medical Frequently Asked Questions |publisher=NORML |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2006/ucm108643.htm |title=FDA: Inter-Agency Advisory Regarding Claims That Smoked Marijuana Is a Medicine |publisher=Fda.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> [[Canada]], [[Spain]], [[Drug policy of the Netherlands|The Netherlands]] and [[Austria]] have also legalized cannabis for medicinal use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/marihuana/about-apropos/faq-eng.php |title=Frequently Asked Questions - Medical Marihuana |publisher=Hc-sc.gc.ca |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_cannabis#Legal_and_medical_status |title=Medical cannabis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |publisher=En.wikipedia.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref>

=== Long-term effects ===

{{Main|Long-term effects of cannabis}}

The smoking of cannabis is the most harmful method of consumption, as the inhalation of [[smoke]] from [[organic compound|organic materials]] can cause various health problems.<ref name="journalHarm Reduction Associated with Inhalation and Oral Administration of Cannabis and THC">{{cite journal | author = Franjo Grotenhermen | title = Harm Reduction Associated with Inhalation and Oral Administration of Cannabis and THC. | journal = Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics | volume = 1 | issue = 3-4 | pages = 133–152 | year = 2001 | month = June | doi = 10.1300/J175v01n03_09 | url = http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all?content=10.1300/J175v01n03_09}}</ref>

By comparison, studies on the [[vaporizer|vaporization]] of cannabis found that subjects were "only 40% as likely to report respiratory symptoms as users who do not vaporize, even when age, sex, cigarette use, and amount of cannabis consumed are controlled."<ref name="pmid17437626">{{cite journal | author = Earleywine M, Barnwell SS | title = Decreased Respiratory Symptoms in Cannabis Users Who Vaporize. | journal = [[Harm Reduction Journal]] | volume = 4 | page = 11 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17437626 | pmc = 1853086 | doi = 10.1186/1477-7517-4-11}}</ref> Another study found vaporizers to be "a safe and effective cannabinoid delivery system."<ref name="pmid17429350">{{cite journal | author = Abrams DI, Vizoso HP, Shade SB, Jay C, Kelly ME, Benowitz NL | title = Vaporization as a Smokeless Cannabis Delivery System: A Pilot Study. | journal = [[Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics]] | volume = 82 | issue = 5 | pages = 572–578 | year = 2007 | month = November | pmid = 17429350 | doi = 10.1038/sj.clpt.6100200 | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17821306}}</ref><ref name="pmid16637053">{{cite journal | author = Hazekamp A, Ruhaak R, Zuurman L, van Gerven J, Verpoorte R | title = Evaluation of a vaporizing device (Volcano) for the pulmonary administration of tetrahydrocannabinol | journal = [[Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences]] | volume = 95 | issue = 6 | pages = 1308–1317 | year = 2006 | month = June | pmid = 16637053 | doi = 10.1002/jps.20574}}</ref>

[[Image:Rational scale to assess the harm of drugs (mean physical harm and mean dependence).svg|thumb|right|300px|Cannabis is ranked one of the least harmful drugs by a study published in the UK medical journal, ''[[The Lancet]]''.<ref name="pmid17382831">{{cite pmid|17382831}}</ref>]]

While a study in New Zealand of 79 lung-cancer patients suggested daily cannabis smokers have a 5.7 times higher risk of lung cancer than non-users,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSHKG10478820080129|title=Cannabis bigger cancer risk than cigarettes: study|publisher=Thomson Reuters | date=2008-01-29}}</ref> another study of 2252 people in Los Angeles failed to find a correlation between the smoking of [[cannabis]] and lung, head or neck cancers.<ref name="Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer">{{cite news |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083353.htm |publisher=Science Daily |date=2006-05-26 |title=Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer}}</ref> Some studies have also found that moderate cannabis use may protect against head and neck cancers,<ref name="pmid19638490">{{cite journal |author=Liang C, McClean MD, Marsit C, ''et al.'' |title=A population-based case-control study of marijuana use and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma |journal=Cancer Prev Res (Phila Pa) |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=759–68 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19638490 |doi=10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-09-0048 |pmc=2812803}}</ref> as well as lung cancer.<ref name="Study finds no marijuana-cancer connection">{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/25/AR2006052501729_pf.html |publisher=Washington Post |date=[2006-5-26] |title=Study Finds No Cancer-Marijuana Connection | first=Marc | last=Kaufman | accessdate=2010-04-28}}</ref> Some studies have shown that [[cannabidiol]] may also be useful in treating breast cancer.<ref name="Marijuana compound may stop spread of breast cancer">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,312132,00.html |publisher=Fox News |date=2007-11-19 |title=Marijuana compound may stop spread of breast cancer}}</ref>  These effects have been attributed to the well documented anti-tumoral properties of [[cannabinoids]], specifically [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC) and [[cannabidiol]].

Cannabis use has been assessed by several studies to be [[dual diagnosis|correlated with the development]] of anxiety, psychosis, and depression.<ref name="pmid=15574485">{{cite journal | author = Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J, ''et al.'' | title = Prospective Cohort Study of Cannabis Use, Predisposition for Psychosis, and Psychotic Symptoms in Young People. | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 330 | issue = 7481 | page = 11 | year = 2005 | month = January | pmid = 15574485 | pmc = 539839 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.38267.664086.63 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12446533">{{cite journal | author = Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, Degenhardt L, Lynskey M, Hall W | title = Cannabis Use and Mental Health in Young People: Cohort Study. | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 325 | issue = 7374 | pages = 1195–1198 | year = 2002 | month = November | pmid = 12446533 | pmc = 135489 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1195 }}</ref> Indeed, a 2007 [[meta-analysis]] estimated that cannabis use is [[association (statistics)|statistically associated]], in a [[Dose-response relationship|dose-dependent]] manner, to an increased risk in the development of psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moore THM, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A ''et al.'' |year=2007 |title= Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review |journal=Lancet |volume=370 |issue=9584 |pages=319–328 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3 |pmid=17662880}}</ref> [[Correlation does not imply causation|No causal mechanism has been proven]], however, and the meaning of the correlation and its direction is a subject of debate that has not been resolved in the scientific community. Some studies assess that the causality is more likely to involve a path from cannabis use to psychotic symptoms rather than a path from psychotic symptoms to cannabis use,<ref name="pmid15733249">{{cite journal | author = Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Ridder EM | title = Tests of Causal Linkages Between Cannabis Use and Psychotic Symptoms. | journal = Addiction | volume = 100 | issue = 3 | pages = 354–366 | year = 2005 | month = March | pmid = 15733249 | doi = 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01001.x }}</ref> while other studies assess the opposite direction of the causality, or hold cannabis to only form parts of a "causal constellation", while not inflicting mental health problems that would not have occurred in the absence of the cannabis use.<ref>Hall, Wayne; Degenhardt, Lousia; Teesson, Maree. "[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a713993666 Cannabis Use and Psychotic Disorders: An Update]". Office of Public Policy and Ethics, [[University of Queensland|Institute for Molecular Bioscience University of Queensland Australia]], and National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre University of New South Wales Australia published in ''[[Drug and Alcohol Review]]'' (December 2004). Vol 23 Issue 4. pp. 433–443.</ref><ref>Arseneault, Louise; Cannon, Mary; Wiitton, John; Murray, Robin M. "[http://www.ukcia.org/research/CausalAssociationBetweenCannabisAndPsychosis/CausalAssociationBetweenCannabisAndPsychosis.pdf Causal Association Between Cannabis and Psychosis: Examination of the Evidence]". [[Institute of Psychiatry]] published in ''[[British Journal of Psychiatry]]'' (2004). #184, pp. 110–117.</ref>

Though cannabis use has at times been associated with stroke, there is no firmly established link, and potential mechanisms are unknown.<ref name="pmid1932970">{{cite journal | author = Halpin SF, Yeoman L, Dundas DD | title = Radiographic examination of the lumbar spine in a community hospital: an audit of current practice | journal = [[BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)]] | volume = 303 | issue = 6806 | pages = 813–815 | year = 1991 | month = October | pmid = 1932970 | pmc = 1671162 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.303.6806.813}}</ref> Similarly, there is no established relationship between cannabis use and heart disease, including exacerbation of cases of existing heart disease.<ref name="pmid18294478">{{cite journal | author = Mukamal KJ, Maclure M, Muller JE, Mittleman MA | title = An exploratory prospective study of marijuana use and mortality following acute myocardial infarction | journal = [[American Heart Journal]] | volume = 155 | issue = 3 | pages = 465–70 | year = 2008 | month = March | pmid = 18294478 | pmc = 2276621 | doi = 10.1016/j.ahj.2007.10.049 | url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0002-8703(07)01044-7}}</ref> Though some [[fMRI]] studies have shown changes in neurological function in long term heavy cannabis users, no long term behavioral effects after abstinence have been linked to these changes.<ref name="pmid17680367">{{cite journal | author = Gonzalez R | title = Acute and Non-Acute Effects of Cannabis on Brain Functioning and Neuropsychological Performance | journal = [[Neuropsychology Review]] | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 347–61 | year = 2007 | month = September | pmid = 17680367 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-007-9036-8}}</ref>

==Detection of use==
THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH, can be quantitated in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using [[chromatographic]] techniques as part of a drug use testing program or a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal offense. The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, prescription use from illicit use, elapsed time since use, and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, however, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medical purposes from unauthorized recreational smoking.<ref name="R. Baselt, 2008">R. Baselt, ''Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man'', 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, 2008, pp 1513-1518.</ref> Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays, often employed as the initial screening method when testing physiological specimens for marijuana presence, have different degrees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites. Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC. Blood may contain both substances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage.<ref name="R. Baselt, 2008"/><ref>Coulter C, Taruc M, Tuyay J, Moore C. Quantitation of tetrahydrocannabinol in hair using immunoassay and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric detection. Drug Test. Anal. 1: 234-239, 2009.</ref><ref>DM Schwope, G Milman and MA Huestis. Validation of an enzyme immunoassay for detection and semiquantification of cannabinoids in oral fluid. Clin. Chem. 56: 1007-1014, 2010.</ref><ref>Huestis MA, Scheidweiler KB, Saito T, Fortner N, Abraham T, Gustafson RA, Smith ML. Excretion of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in sweat. Forensic Sci. Int. 174:173-177, 2008.</ref>

The [[Duquenois-Levine test]] is commonly used as a [[Presumptive and confirmatory tests|screening test]] in the field, but it cannot definitively confirm the presence of marijuana, as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives. Despite this, it is common in the [[United States]] for prosecutors to seek [[plea bargain]]s on the basis of positive D-L tests, claiming them definitive, or even to seek conviction without the use of gas chromatography confirmation, which can only be done in the lab.<ref name=alternet>''[[AlterNet]]'', 28 July 2010, [http://www.alternet.org/investigations/147613/has_the_most_common_marijuana_test_resulted_in_tens_of_thousands_of_wrongful_convictions/ Has the Most Common Marijuana Test Resulted in Tens of Thousands of Wrongful Convictions?]</ref>

== Gateway drug theory ==
<!---***Do Not change the name of the title here, it WILL be reverted.*--->
{{further|[[Gateway drug theory]]}}

Some claim that trying cannabis increases the probability that users will eventually use "harder" drugs. This hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of anti-cannabis drug policy in the United States,<ref name="CB">{{cite web|url=http://www.criminalbrief.com/?p=5445|title=The Great Smoke-Out|last=Lundin|first=Leigh|date=2009-03-01|publisher=Criminal Brief}}</ref> though the validity and implications of these hypotheses are highly debated.<ref name="Rand">{{cite web|date=2002-12-02 |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press.02/gateway.html|title=RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin|publisher=RAND Corporation}}</ref> Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.<ref name="pmid8246462">{{cite journal | author = Torabi MR, Bailey WJ, Majd-Jabbari M | title = Cigarette Smoking as a Predictor of Alcohol and Other Drug Use by Children and Adolescents: Evidence of the "Gateway Drug Effect" | journal = [[The Journal of School Health]] | volume = 63 | issue = 7 | pages = 302–306 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8246462 | doi = 10.1111/j.1746-1561.1993.tb06150.x}}</ref>

No widely accepted study has ever demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between the use of cannabis and the later use of harder drugs like heroin and cocaine. However, the prevalence of tobacco cigarette advertising and the practice of mixing tobacco and cannabis together in a single large [[Joint (cannabis)|joint]], common in Europe, are believed to be cofactors in promoting nicotine dependency among young persons investigating cannabis.<ref>[http://www.groups.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/National_Cannabis_Strategy_Consultation_Paper.pdf Australian Government Department of Health: National Cannabis Strategy Consultation Paper], p. 4. "''Cannabis'' has been described as a 'Trojan Horse' for nicotine addiction, given the usual method of mixing ''Cannabis'' with tobacco when preparing marijuana for administration."</ref>

A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a given setting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential than cannabis itself. The study called for further research on "social context, individual characteristics, and drug effects" to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs.<ref name="pmid16191720">{{cite journal | author = Hall WD, Lynskey M | title = Is ''Cannabis'' A Gateway Drug? Testing Hypotheses About the Relationship Between ''Cannabis'' Use and the Use of Other Illicit Drugs. | journal = [[Drug and Alcohol Review]] | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–48 | year = 2005 | month = January | pmid = 16191720 | doi = 10.1080/09595230500126698 | url = http://www.informaworld.com/openurl?genre=article&doi=10.1080/09595230500126698&magic=pubmed&#124;&#124;1B69BA326FFE69C3F0A8F227DF8201D0}}</ref>

A new user of cannabis who feels there is a difference between anti-drug information and their own experiences will apply this distrust to public information about other, more powerful drugs. Some studies state that while there is no proof for this gateway hypothesis, young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk group for intervention programs.<ref name="journalwatch">{{cite journal|author=Saitz, Richard|date=2003-02-18|url=http://general-medicine.jwatch.org/cgi/content/full/2003/218/1|title=Is marijuana a gateway drug?|journal=Journal Watch}}</ref> Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be [[poly drug use|"poly-drug" users]], and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01906.x|author=Degenhardt, Louisa et al.|title=Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians|year=2007}}</ref>

Another gateway hypothesis is that while cannabis is not as harmful or addictive as other drugs, a gateway effect may be detected as a result of the "common factors" involved with using any illegal drug. Because of its illegal status, cannabis users are more likely to be in situations which allow them to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs.<ref name="morral2002">{{cite journal |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118957921/abstract |author=Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM |title=Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=1493–504 |year=2002 |pmid=12472629 |doi=10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00280.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpp.org/about/faq.html|title=Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ}}</ref> By this argument, some studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may be regarded as gateway drugs.<ref name="pmid8246462"/> However, a more parsimonious explanation could be that cannabis is simply more readily available (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs, and alcohol/tobacco are in turn easier to obtain earlier than cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some areas), thus leading to the "gateway sequence" in those people who are most likely to experiment with any drug offered.<ref name="Rand"/>

A 2010 study published in the ''[[Journal of Health and Social Behavior]]'' found that the main factors in users moving on to other drugs were age, wealth, unemployment status, and psychological stress. The study found there is no "gateway theory" and that drug use is more closely tied to a person's life situation, although marijuana users are more likely to use other drugs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/100902073507.htm |title=Risk of marijuana's 'gateway effect' overblown, new research shows |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=2010-09-02 |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref>

== Legal status ==
<!-- PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at [[Legality of cannabis]]. THANKS. -->
[[Image:Killerdrug.jpg|thumb|300px|Cannabis propaganda sheet from 1935]]
{{Main|Legality of cannabis}}
{{See also|Drug prohibition|Drug liberalization}}

Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted [[prohibition (drugs)|laws]] against the cultivation, possession or transfer of cannabis. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by [[confiscation]] and sometimes a [[fine (penalty)|fine]], rather than [[imprisonment]], focusing more on those who [[illegal drug trade|traffic]] the drug on the black market.

In some areas where cannabis use has been historically tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place, such as the closing of [[cannabis coffee shop]]s near the borders of the Netherlands,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expatica.com/nl/leisure/arts_culture/many-dutch-coffee-shops-close-as-liberal-policies-change-46376.html |title=Many Dutch coffee shops close as liberal policies change, Exaptica, 27/11/2007 |publisher=Expatica.com |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref> closing of coffee shops near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on "Pusher Street" in [[Freetown Christiania|Christiania]], [[Copenhagen]] in 2004.<ref>[http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_53355_EN_emcdda-cannabis-mon-full-2vols-web.pdf EMCDDA Cannabis reader]: Global issues and local experiences, Perspectives on Cannabis controversies, treatment and regulation in Europe, 2008, p. 157.</ref><ref>[http://www.rnw.nl/internationaljustice/news/international/6061587/43-Amsterdam-coffee-shops-to-close-doors 43 Amsterdam coffee shops to close door, Radio Netherlands, Friday 21 November 2008.]{{dead link|date=September 2010}}</ref>

Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long [[prison]] terms in some countries, particularly in [[East Asia]], where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of [[life in prison]] or even [[execution]]. More recently however, many political parties, non-profit organizations and causes based on the legalization of [[medical cannabis]] and/or legalizing the plant entirely (with some restrictions) have emerged.

==Price==

The price or street value of cannabis varies strongly by region and area. In addition, some dealers may sell potent buds at a higher price.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2005/volume_2_chap7_cannabis.pdf |title=UNODC.org |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-09-20}}</ref>

In the United States, [[cannabis]] is overall the #4 value crop, and is #1 or #2 in many states including [[California]], [[New York]] and [[Florida]], averaging $3,000/lb.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=4444 |title=Report on U.S. Domestic Marijuana Production |publisher=NORML |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=4414 |title=Marijuana Crop Reports |publisher=NORML |date= |accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref> It is believed to generate an estimated $36 billion market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/business/story?id=2735017&page=1|publisher=2008 ABCNews Internet Ventures|title=Marijuana Called Top U.S. Cash Crop}}</ref> Most of the money is spent not on growing and producing but on smuggling the supply to buyers. The [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical U.S. retail prices are 10-15 dollars per gram (approximately $290 to $430 per [[ounce]]). Street prices in North America are known to range from about $150 to $250 per [[ounce]], depending on quality.<ref>{{cite book |author=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime |title=World drug report |year=2008 |publisher=United Nations Publications|isbn=978-92-1-148229-4 |url=http://www.unodc.org/documents/wdr/WDR_2008/WDR_2008_eng_web.pdf |format=PDF|pages=264}}</ref>

The [[European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction]] reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varies from 2€ to 14€ per gram, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range 4–10€.<ref>{{cite book |author=European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction |title=Annual report: the state of the drugs problem in Europe |year=2008 |publisher=Office for Official Publications of the European Communities |location=Luxembourg |isbn=978-92-9168-324-6 |url=http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/attachements.cfm/att_64227_EN_EMCDDA_AR08_en.pdf |format=PDF|page=38}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, a cannabis plant has an approximate street value of £300,<ref>[http://www.southyorks.police.uk/news/newssyp/dearnesaferneighbourhoodteamsntrecoverscannabisstreetvalueapproximately£9000 Dearne Safer Neighbourhood Team (SNT) recovers cannabis with a street value of approximately £9,000]</ref> but retails to the end-user at about £160/oz.

== Truth serum ==
Cannabis was used as a [[truth drug|truth serum]] by the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS), a US government [[intelligence agency]] formed during World War II. In the early 1940s, it was the most effective truth drug developed at the OSS labs at [[St. Elizabeths Hospital]]; it caused a subject "to be loquacious and free in his impartation of information."<ref name='Whiteout'>{{cite book | last = Cockburn | first = Alexander | coauthors = Jeffrey St. Clair | title = Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press | publisher = Verso | year = 1998 | pages = 117–118| url = http://books.google.com/?id=s5qIj_h_PtkC&printsec=frontcover#PPA118,M1 | isbn = 1859841392}}</ref>

In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS [[counter-intelligence]] operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto Del Gracio, an enforcer for gangster [[Lucky Luciano]]. Del Gracio was given cigarettes spiked with THC concentrate from cannabis, and subsequently talked openly about Luciano's [[heroin]] operation. On a second occasion the dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.<ref name='Whiteout'/>

== Breeding and cultivation ==

<!-- PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation]]. THANKS. -->
[[Image:Cannabis flowering.jpg|thumb|right|Maturing female [[Cannabis]] plant]]
{{Main|Cannabis cultivation}}

It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when THC was first discovered and understood. However, potent seedless marijuana such as "[[Thai sticks]]" were already available at that time. Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Hydroponic cultivation|hydroponics]], [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Feminized seeds|cloning]], [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Light|high-intensity artificial lighting]], and [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#SOG|the sea of green method]] are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have made it possible to grow strains with fewer seeds and higher potency. It is often cited that the average levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such statements are likely skewed because of undue weight given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent samples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2074151|publisher=Slate.com|title=The Myth of Potent Pot|date=November 19, 2002|author=Daniel Forbes}}</ref>

{{anchor|Skunk}}

"Skunk" refers to several named strains of potent cannabis, grown through selective breeding and often hydroponics. It is a cross-breed of ''Cannabis sativa'' and ''C. indica'' (although other strains of this mix exist in abundance). Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in [[Cannabis coffee shop|coffee shops]] in the Netherlands is about 18–19%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2006.html|title=World Drug Report 2006|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime}} Ch. 2.3.</ref>

A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study examining male volunteers aged 18–45&nbsp;years with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use concluded that smoking of cannabis with high THC levels (marijuana with 9–23% THC), as currently sold in coffee shops in the Netherlands, may lead to higher THC blood-serum concentrations. This is reflected by an increase of the occurrence of impaired psychomotor skills, particularly among younger or inexperienced cannabis smokers, who do not adapt their smoking style to the higher THC content.<ref>{{cite web | author = Tj. T. Mensinga et al. | url = http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/267002002.pdf | format = PDF | title = A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Cross-Over Study on the Pharmacokinetics and Effects of ''Cannabis''. | publisher = [[RIVM]]}}</ref> High THC concentrations in cannabis was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness). It was also observed during the study that the effects from a single [[joint (cannabis)|joint]] at times lasted for more than eight hours. Reaction times remained impaired five hours after smoking, when the THC serum concentrations were significantly reduced, but still present. The researchers suggested that THC may accumulate in blood-serum when cannabis is smoked several times per day.

Another study showed that consumption of 15&nbsp;mg of Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC resulted in no impairment in performance of [[implicit memory]] tasks occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task after two hours. In several tasks, Δ<sup>9</sup>-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting “riskier” speed–accuracy trade-offs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12373420&dopt=AbstractCurranCurran|author=Curran H.V., et al.|title=Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects|year=2002|publisher=[[National Center for Biotechnology Information|NCBI]]}}</ref>

==In arts and literature==
*''[[Les paradis artificiels]]'' by [[Charles Baudelaire]]
*''[[The Hasheesh Eater]]'' by [[Fitz Hugh Ludlow]]

== See also ==
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2;">
;Cannabis plant
* [[Bhang]]
* [[Cannabinoid]]s
** [[Cannabidiol]] (CBD)
** [[Cannabinol]] (CBN)
** [[Tetrahydrocannabinol]] (THC)
** [[Tetrahydrocannabivarin]] (THCV)
* [[Cannabis drug strains]]
* [[Hash]] or [[hashish]]
* [[Hash oil]] or [[honey oil]]
* [[Hemp oil]]
* [[Kief]]
;Cannabis health
* [[Medical cannabis]]
;Cannabis mental health
* [[Depersonalization disorder]]
* [[Smoking cessation (cannabis)]]
;Cannabis legality
* [[Legal history of cannabis in the United States]]
* [[1937 Marihuana Tax Act]]
* [[Cannabis political parties]]
* [[Global Marijuana March]]
* [[International Opium Convention]]
* [[Legal and medical status of cannabis]]
* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]
* [[Marijuana Control, Regulation, and Education Act]]
* [[Marijuana Policy Project]]
* [[National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (United States)|National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws]]
;Cannabis use demographics
* [[Adult lifetime cannabis use by country]]
* [[Annual cannabis use by country]]

</div>

== Notes ==
=== Footnotes ===
<!-- Please do not add any more nicknames, this should give an overview of the most common ones. -->
{{Cnote|a|'''Weed''', '''pot''', '''buddha''' or '''bud''', '''Mary Jane''', '''grass''', '''herb''', '''dope''', '''schwag''', and '''reefer''', are among the many other nicknames for marijuana or cannabis as a drug.<ref name="urlMarijuana Dictionary">{{cite web | url = http://www.marijuanadictionary.com/ | title = Marijuana Dictionary }}</ref>}}
{{Cnote|b|Sources for this section (as well as far more information) can be found in the [[Medical cannabis]] article.}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book | title = Cannabis: A History | authorlink = Martin Booth|last=Booth|first=Martin | publisher = [[Macmillan Publishers]] & [[Random House, Inc]] | year = 2005 | pages = | isbn=978-0-312-42494-7 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=O7AoY6ljSygC&printsec=frontcover}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|Marijuana}}
{{Commons category|Cannabis}}
* [[wikt:Appendix:Cannabis slang|Wiktionary Appendix of Cannabis Slang]]
* [http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1997/WHO_MSA_PSA_97.4.pdf "Cannabis: a health perspective and research agenda"], Programme on Substance Abuse, [[World Health Organization]], 1997
* [http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/ Erowid Cannabis (Marijuana) Vault]

{{Cannabis resources}}
{{Cannabinoids}}
{{Drug use}}

<!-- Currently unused, need to merge back into the article:
== History ==
[[Image:Seed close up.jpg|right|thumb|A close up picture of a cannabis seed.]]
Cannabis was known as a medicinal and psychoactive compound in some early societies, and has been used continuously in many parts of the world. Other societies have developed a social [[stigma]] surrounding the drug.<!-- repression in various Islamic centuries (11th, 13th, and others), early modern (ex-Ottoman) Greece, Egypt under Mehemet Ali (19th century), ...-->

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cannabis (Drug)}}
[[Category:Cannabis| ]]
[[Category:Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants]]
[[Category:Euphoriants]]
[[Category:Cannabis smoking]]

[[af:Dagga]]
[[als:Marihuana]]
[[bg:Марихуана]]
[[cs:Marihuana]]
[[cy:Cannabis (cyffur)]]
[[da:Hamp]]
[[de:Marihuana]]
[[et:Marihuaana]]
[[el:Κάνναβη (φάρμακο)]]
[[es:Cannabis (droga)]]
[[eo:Mariĥuano]]
[[fr:Chanvre]]
[[gl:Cannabis (droga)]]
[[ko:대마초]]
[[hr:Marihuana]]
[[ig:Ịgbó]]
[[id:Ganja]]
[[it:Marijuana]]
[[he:מריחואנה]]
[[lv:Marihuāna]]
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[[li:Kemp]]
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[[mk:Марихуана]]
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[[ms:Ganja]]
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[[ja:大麻]]
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[[pl:Marihuana]]
[[pt:Cânabis]]
[[ro:Marijuana]]
[[ru:Марихуана]]
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[[uk:Марихуана]]
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[[zh:大麻]]
[[Category:2Fix]]