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{{About|the plant genus|use as a psychoactive drug in the genus|Cannabis (drug)}}
{{sprotect2}}
{{Taxobox
|image = Cannabis sativa Koehler drawing.jpg
|image_width = 250px
|image_caption = Common hemp
|status = LC
|status_system = IUCN3.1
|regnum = [[Plant]]ae
|divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
|classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
|ordo = [[Rosales]]
|familia = [[Cannabaceae]]
|genus = '''''Cannabis'''''
|genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = ''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' L.<ref name = "grin"/><br>
''Cannabis indica'' Lam. (putative)<ref name = "grin"/><br>
''Cannabis ruderalis'' Janisch. (putative)
}}
[[File:Hash museum amsterdam.JPG|thumb|220px|[[Hash Marijuana & Hemp Museum|Cannabis Museum]] in [[Amsterdam]].]]
'''''Cannabis''''' (''[[Syllable stress of Botanical Latin|Cán-na-bis]]'') is a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s that includes three putative species, ''[[Cannabis sativa]]'',<ref name="grin">{{cite web|url = http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?8862|title = Cannabis sativa information from NPGS/GRIN|publisher = www.ars-grin.gov|accessdate = 2008-07-13|last = |first = }}</ref> ''[[Cannabis indica]]'',<ref name = "grin"/> and ''[[Cannabis ruderalis]]''. These three [[taxa]] are [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] to [[Central Asia]], and [[South Asia]].<ref>"Marijuana and the Cannabinoids", ElSohly (p.8)</ref> ''Cannabis'' has long been used for fibre ([[hemp]]), for [[medical cannabis|medicinal purposes]], and as a [[cannabis#Recreational use|recreational drug]]. Industrial [[hemp]] products are made from ''Cannabis'' plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of [[THC]] (Δ<sup>9</sup>- tetrahydrocannabinol), a [[psychoactive]] molecule that produces the "high" associated with [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]]. The psychoactive product consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including [[hashish]] and [[hash oil]] are also produced from the plant.<ref name = erowid>Erowid. 2006. [http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_basics.shtml ''Cannabis'' Basics]. Retrieved on 25 February 2007</ref>

==Etymology==
{{Main|Cannabis (etymology)}}
The word '''cannabis''' is from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|κάνναβις}} (''{{lang|grc|kánnabis}}'') (see [[Latin]] ''{{lang|la|cannabis}}''),<ref>"cannabis" OED Online. July 2009. [[Oxford University Press]]. 2009. http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50032466</ref> which was originally [[Scythian languages|Scythian]] or [[Thracian language|Thracian]].<ref name = "etymonline">http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cannabis</ref> It is related to the [[Persian language|Persian]] ''{{lang|fa|kanab}}'', the English ''canvas'' and possibly even to the English ''[[hemp]]'' (Old English {{lang|ags|hænep}}).<ref name = "etymonline"/> In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the word is ''קַנַּבּוֹס'' [qanːa'boːs]. Old Akkadian ''qunnabtu'', Neo-[[Assyria]]n and Neo-[[Babylonian]] ''qunnabu'' were used to refer to the plant meaning "a way to produce smoke."<ref>{{cite book|author = Rubin, Vera D.|title = Cannabis and Culture|publisher = Campus Verlag|year = 1976|isbn = 3-5933-7442-0}} p. 305.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last = |first = |author-link = |last2 = |first2 = |author2-link = |year = 1976|date = |publication-date = |contribution = |contribution-url = |editor-last = Rubin|editor-first = Vera|editor-link = |title = Cannabis and Culture|edition = |series = |place = The Hague|publication-place = |publisher = Mouton|volume = |pages = 305|id = |isbn = 9027976694|doi = |oclc = |url = }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last = |first = |author-link = |last2 = |first2 = |author2-link = |year = 1999|date = |publication-date = |contribution = |contribution-url = |editor-last = Black|editor-first = Jeremy|editor-link = |editor2-last = George|editor2-first = Andrew|editor2-link = |editor3-first = Postgate|editor3-last = Nicholas|title = A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian|edition = |series = SANTAG|volume = 5|place = |publication-place = Wiesbaden|publisher = Harrassowitz Verlag|pages = |id = |isbn = 3-447-04|doi = |oclc = |url = }}</ref>

==Description==
''Cannabis'' is an [[Annual plant|annual]], [[dioecious]], [[Flowering plant|flowering]] [[herb]]. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[Leaf shape|palmately compound]] or digitate, with [[serrate]] [[leaflet]]s.<ref>http://waynesword.palomar.edu/termlf1.htm</ref> The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite [[Phyllotaxis|leaf arrangement]] and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant. 

''Cannabis'' normally has [[Plant sexuality#Terminology|imperfect]] [[flowers]], with [[Stamen|staminate]] "male" and [[pistil]]late "female" flowers occurring on separate plants.<ref name = "lebel1997">Lebel-Hardenack, S. and S. R. Grant. 1997. Genetics of sex determination in flowering plants. ''Trends in Plant Science'' '''2'''(4): 130–136.</ref> It is not unusual, however, for individual plants to bear both male and female flowers.<ref name = "moliterni2005">Cristiana Moliterni, V. M., L. Cattivelli, P. Ranalli. and G. Mandolino. 2005. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/t491042240h422v8/?p=702c2acbac6445a095ebaf968bca427d&pi=11 The sexual differentiation of ''Cannabis sativa'' L.: A morphological and molecular study]. ''Euphytica'' '''140'''(1-2): 95-106. Retrieved on 25 February 2007</ref> Although monoecious plants are often referred to as "hermaphrodites," true hermaphrodites (which are less common) bear staminate and pistillate structures on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the same plant. Male flowers are normally borne on loose [[panicle]]s, and female flowers are borne on [[raceme]]s.<ref name = "bouquet1950">Bouquet, R. J. 1950. [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1950-01-01_4_page003.html ''Cannabis'']. [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]]. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref> "At a very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant as dioecious,"<ref>Li Hui-Lin (1973). "The Origin and Use of Cannabis in Eastern Asia: Linguistic-Cultural Implications", ''Economic Botany'' 28.3:293-301, p. 294.</ref> and the (ca. 3rd century BCE) ''[[Erya]]'' dictionary defined ''xi'' [[Wikt:枲|枲]] "male cannabis" and ''fu'' [[Wikt:莩|莩]] (or ''ju'' [[Wikt:苴|苴]]) "female cannabis".<ref>13/99 and 13/133. In addition, 13/98 defined ''fen'' 蕡 "cannabis inflorescence" and 13/159 ''bo'' 薜 "wild cannabis".</ref> 

All known strains of ''Cannabis'' are [[Anemophily|wind-pollinated]]<ref name = "clarke1991a">Clarke, Robert C. 1991. ''Marijuana Botany'', 2nd ed. Ron Publishing, California. ISBN 0-914171-78-X</ref> and produce "[[seed]]s" that are technically called [[achene]]s.<ref name = "small1975c">Small, E. 1975. Morphological variation of achenes of ''Cannabis''. ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' '''53'''(10): 978-987.</ref> Most strains of ''Cannabis'' are [[Photoperiodism|short day plants]],<ref name = clarke1991a/> with the possible exception of ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''spontanea'' (= ''C. ruderalis''), which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be [[Photoperiodism|day-neutral]].

''Cannabis'', like many organisms, is [[Ploidy|diploid]], having a [[chromosome]] complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced.<ref name = "small1972a">Small, E. 1972. Interfertility and chromosomal uniformity in ''Cannabis''. ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' '''50'''(9): 1947-1949.</ref> The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions northwest of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp, although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of ''Cannabis'' cultivated for non-drug use. ''Cannabis'' plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids, which produce mental and physical effects when consumed. [[Cannabinoids]], [[terpenoids]], and other compounds are secreted by glandular [[trichomes]] that occur most abundantly on the floral [[sepal|calyxes]] and [[bract]]s of female plants.<ref name = "mahlberg2001a">Mahlberg, Paul G. and Eun Soo Kim. 2001. [http://www.hempreport.com/issues/17/malbody17.html THC (tetrahyrdocannabinol) accumulation in glands of ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''The Hemp Report'' '''3'''(17). Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref> As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flower buds ([[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]]), [[resin]] ([[hashish]]), or various extracts collectively known as [[hashish oil]].<ref name = erowid/> In the early 20th century, it became illegal in most of the world to cultivate or possess ''Cannabis'' for drug purposes.

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Herbal.jpg|thumb|''Cannabis'' Leaf]]
The genus ''Cannabis'' was formerly placed in the [[Nettle]] ([[Urticaceae]]) or [[Mulberry]] ([[Moraceae]]) family, but is now considered along with [[Hop (plant)|hops]] (''Humulus'' sp.) to belong to the [[Hemp]] family ([[Cannabaceae]]).<ref name = schultes2001a>Schultes, R. E., A. Hofmann, and C. Rätsch. 2001. The nectar of delight. In: ''Plants of the Gods'' 2nd ed., Healing Arts Press, Rochester, Vermont, pp. 92-101. ISBN 0-89281-979-0</ref>  Recent [[phylogenetic]] studies based on [[cpDNA]] [[restriction site]] analysis and [[gene sequencing]] strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae arose from within the [[Celtidaceae]] [[clade]], and that the two families should be merged to form a single [[monophyletic]] group.<ref name = song2001>Song, B.-H., Wang, X.-Q., Li, F.-Z., and Hong, D.-Y. 2001. [http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/9v01xfaw7t8qx288/?p=db82cdfc53554cc687fd999a5c7e371f&pi=8 Further evidence for paraphyly of the Celtidaceae from the chloroplast gene ''matK'']. ''Plant Systematics and Evolution'' '''228'''(1-2): 107-115.</ref><ref name = sytsma2002>Sytsma, K. J., Morawetz, J., Pires, J. C., Nepokroeff, M., Conti, E., Zjhra, M., Hall, J. C., and Chase, M. W. 2002. [http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/89/9/1531 Urticalean Rosids: circumscription, Rosid ancestry, and phylogenetics based on ''rbcL'', ''trnL-F'', and ''ndh-F'' sequences]. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''89'''(9): 1531-1546.</ref>

Various types of ''Cannabis'' have been described, and classified as [[species]], [[subspecies]], or [[Variety (biology)|varieties]]:<ref name = "small1975b">Small, Ernest. 1975. [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1975-01-01_3_page002.html American law and the species problem in ''Cannabis'': Science and semantics]. ''Bulletin on Narcotics'' '''27'''(3): 1-20. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref>
*plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
*plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.
*escaped or wild forms of either of the above types.

[[File:Marijuana.jpg|thumb|left|Leaf of a ''Cannabis'' plant.]]
''Cannabis'' plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol ([[Cannabidiol|CBD]]) and/or Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabinol ([[THC]]), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, ''Cannabis'' plants have been categorized by their chemical [[phenotype]] or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.<ref name = "small1973a">Small, E. and H. D. Beckstead. 1973. Common cannabinoid phenotypes in 350 stocks of ''Cannabis''. ''Lloydia'' '''36''': 144–165.</ref> Although overall [[cannabinoid]] production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.<ref name = "meijer2003a">Etienne P. M. de Meijer, M. Bagatta, A. Carboni, P. Crucitti, V. M. Cristiana Moliterni, P. Ranalli, and G. Mandolino. 2003. [http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/163/1/335 The Inheritance of Chemical Phenotype in ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Genetics'' '''163'''(1): 335-346. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref> Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F<sub>1</sub>) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.<ref name = small1973a/><ref name = "hillig2004a">Hillig, Karl W. and Paul G. Mahlberg. 2004. [http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/91/6/966 A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''91'''(6): 966-975. Retrieved on 22 February 2007</ref>  

[[File:Cannabis-vegetative-growth-00003.jpg|thumb|Top of ''Cannabis'' plant in vegetative growth stage.]]
Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of ''Cannabis'' constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a [[species]].<ref name = "small1979a">Small, E. 1979. Fundamental aspects of the species problem in biology. In: ''The Species Problem in Cannabis'', vol. 1: Science. Corpus Information Services, Toronto, Canada, pp. 5-63. ISBN 0-919217-11-7</ref> One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."<ref name = "glossary">Rieger, R., A. Michaelis, and M. M. Green. 1991. ''Glossary of Genetics'', 5th ed. Springer-Verlag, pp. 458-459. ISBN 0-387-52054-6</ref> Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.<ref name = glossary/> [[Reproductive isolation|Physiological barriers to reproduction]] are not known to occur within ''Cannabis'', and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.<ref name = "small1972a"/> However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled ''Cannabis'' gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation.<ref name = "hillig2005a">Hillig, Karl W. 2005. [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/gres/2005/00000052/00000002/00004452 Genetic evidence for speciation  in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' '''52'''(2): 161-180. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref> It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and [[genetic divergence]] occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.<ref name = "small1975a">Small, E. 1975. [http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1975-21-3.php On toadstool soup and legal species of marihuana]. ''Plant Science Bulletin'' '''21'''(3): 34-39. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = "emboden1981a">Emboden, W. A. 1981. The genus ''Cannabis'' and the correct use of taxonomic categories. ''Journal of Psychoactive Drugs'' '''13''': 15–21.</ref><ref name = "schultes1980a">Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann. 1980. ''Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens''. C. C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, pp. 82–116. ISBN 0-398-03863-5</ref>

===Early classifications===
[[File:Cannab2 new.png|thumb|225px|Relative size of varieties of ''Cannabis''.]]
The ''Cannabis'' genus was first [[Scientific classification|classified]] using the "modern" system of taxonomic [[Binomial nomenclature|nomenclature]] by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species.<ref name = "linnaeus1753">Linnaeus, C. 1753. ''Species Plantarum'' '''2''': 1027. Salvius, Stockholm. [Facsimile edition, 1957-1959. Ray Society, London, U.K.]</ref> He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named ''Cannabis sativa'' L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist [[Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck]] published a description of a second species of ''Cannabis'', which he named ''Cannabis indica'' Lam.<ref name = "lamarck1785">de Lamarck, J.B. 1785. ''Encyclopédie Méthodique de Botanique'', vol. 1, pt. 2. Paris, France, pp. 694-695</ref> Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described ''C. indica'' as having poorer fiber quality than ''C. sativa'', but greater utility as an [[Psychoactive drug|inebriant]]. Additional ''Cannabis'' species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names ''Cannabis chinensis'' Delile, and ''Cannabis gigantea'' Delile ex Vilmorin.<ref name = "small1976a">Small, E. and A. Cronquist. 1976. A practical and natural taxonomy for ''Cannabis''. ''Taxon'' '''25'''(4): 405–435.</ref> However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the [[Soviet Union]] where ''Cannabis'' continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name ''Cannabis indica'' was listed in various [[Pharmacopoeia]]s, and was widely used to designate ''Cannabis'' suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.<ref name = "winek1977">Winek, C. L. 1977. Some historical aspects of marijuana. ''Clinical Toxicology'' '''10'''(2): 243-253.</ref>

===20th Century===
[[File:Cannabis ruderalis.jpg|thumb|left|''Cannabis ruderalis''.]]
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that [[ruderal]] ''Cannabis'' in central Russia is either a variety of ''C. sativa'' or a separate species, and proposed ''C. sativa'' L. var. ''ruderalis'' Janisch. and ''Cannabis ruderalis'' Janisch. as alternative names.<ref name = small1975b/> In 1929, renowned plant explorer [[Nikolai Vavilov]] assigned wild or feral populations of ''Cannabis'' in Afghanistan to ''C. indica'' Lam. var. ''kafiristanica'' Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to ''C. sativa'' L. var. ''spontanea'' Vav.<ref name="hillig2004a"/><ref name = small1976a/> In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species. Within ''C. sativa'' they recognized two subspecies: ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''culta'' Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''spontanea'' (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two ''C. sativa'' subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies ''culta''. However, they did not divide ''C. indica'' into subspecies or varieties.<ref name = small1975b/><ref name = "serebriakova1940">Serebriakova T. Ya. and I. A. Sizov. 1940. Cannabinaceae Lindl. In: Vavilov N. I. (ed.), ''Kulturnaya Flora SSSR'', vol. 5, Moscow-Leningrad, USSR, pp. 1-53. [in Russian]</ref> This excessive splitting of ''C. sativa'' proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of ''Cannabis'' took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting ''Cannabis'' in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] specifically named products of ''C. sativa'' as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized ''Cannabis'' material may not have been ''C. sativa'', and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while [[Richard E. Schultes|Dr. Richard E. Schultes]] and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity.<ref name = small1975a/><ref name = emboden1981a/> The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.<ref name = "watts2006">Watts, G. 2006. [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/332/7534/175.pdf ''Cannabis'' confusions]. BMJ 332: 175-176. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref>

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small<ref name = "smallbiography">[http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_gene_e?mlist-authors-small_e.html Ernest Small (biography)]. National Research Council Canada. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref> and American taxonomist [[Arthur Cronquist]] published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of ''Cannabis'' with two subspecies: ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'', and ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''indica'' (Lam.) Small & Cronq.<ref name = small1976a/> The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' was presumably [[Artificial selection|selected]] for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''spontanea'' Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant ''Cannabis'', and ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' var. ''kafiristanica'' (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of [[phenotypic]] characters.<ref name = small1973a/><ref name = small1976a/><ref name = "small1976b">Small, E., P. Y. Jui, and L. P. Lefkovitch. 1976. A numerical taxonomic analysis of ''Cannabis'' with special reference to species delimitation. ''Systematic Botany'' '''1'''(1): 67-84.</ref>

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist [[Richard E. Schultes]] and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of ''Cannabis'' in the 1970s, and concluded that stable [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, ''C. sativa'', ''C. indica'', and ''C. ruderalis.''<ref name = "schultes1974a">Schultes, R. E., W. M. Klein, T. Plowman, and T. E. Lockwood. 1974. ''Cannabis'': an example of taxonomic neglect. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''23''': 337–367.</ref><ref name = "anderson1974a">[http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php Anderson, L. C.] 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in ''Cannabis''. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''24''': 29–36. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = "anderson1980a">[http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php Anderson, L. C.] 1980. Leaf variation among ''Cannabis'' species from a controlled garden. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''28''': 61–69.  Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = emboden1974a>Emboden, W. A. 1974. ''Cannabis'' – a polytypic genus. ''Economic Botany'' '''28''': 304-310.</ref> For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that ''Cannabis'' is monotypic, with only a single species.<ref name = "schultes1970a">Schultes, R. E. 1970. Random thoughts and queries on the botany of ''Cannabis''. In: Joyce, C. R. B. and Curry, S. H. (eds), ''The Botany and Chemistry of Cannabis''. J. & A. Churchill, London, pp. 11-38.</ref> According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, ''C. sativa'' is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, ''C. indica'' is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and ''C. ruderalis'' is short, branchless, and grows wild in [[central Asia]]. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by ''Cannabis'' aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug [[Cannabis drug strains|strains]] from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.<ref name = "clarke2005a">[http://www.norml.org.nz/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=588 Interview with Robert Connell Clarke]. 1 Jan 2005. NORML, New Zealand. Retrieved on 19 February 2007</ref>

===Continuing research===
[[Molecular biology|Molecular analytical techniques]] developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on [[History of plant systematics#Evolutionary systematics|evolutionary systematics]]. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA ([[RAPD]]) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of ''Cannabis'', primarily for [[plant breeding]] and forensic purposes.<ref name = "faeti1996a">Faeti, V., G. Mandolino, and P. Ranalli. 1996. [[Genetic diversity]] of ''Cannabis sativa'' germplasm based on RAPD markers. ''Plant Breeding'' '''115''': 367–370.</ref><ref name="forapani2001a">Forapani, S., A. Carboni, C. Paoletti, V. M. Christiana Moliterni, P. Ranalli, and G. Mandolino. 2001. [http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/41/6/1682 Comparison of hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.) varieties using Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA markers]. ''Crop Science'' '''41''': 1682-1689. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = "mandolino2002a">Mandolino, G. and Ranalli, P. 2002. [https://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=WHMFTL5P4HRL8KGL589LPHULAS5X554F&ID=8157 The applications of molecular markers in genetics and breeding of hemp]. ''Journal of Industrial Hemp'' '''7'''(1): 7-23. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = "gilmore2003a">Gilmore S., R. Peakall, and J. Roberts. 2003. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6W-478RNWR-7&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F09%2F2003&_alid=541458074&_rdoc=2&_fmt=summary&_orig=search&_cdi=5041&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=196333f36d13d0b0bacdfa4dbbfd5abe Short tandem repeats (STR) DNA markers are hypervariable and informative in ''Cannabis sativa'': implications for forensic investigations]. ''Forensic Science International'' '''131'''(1): 65-74. Retrieved on 25 February 2007</ref><ref name = "kojoka2002a">Kojoka M., O. Iida, Y. Makino, S. Sekita, and M. Satake. 2002. DNA fingerprinting of ''Cannabis sativa'' using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) amplification. ''Planta Medica'' '''68'''(1): 60-63.</ref> Dutch ''Cannabis'' researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars.<ref name = "meijer2003a"/> They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the ''Cannabis'' [[gene pool]] throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study ''per se''.

Karl W. Hillig, a [[Postgraduate education|graduate]] student in the laboratory of long-time ''Cannabis'' researcher Paul G. Mahlberg<ref name = "mahlbergNAIHC">[http://www.naihc.org/MahlbergArticles.html Dr. Paul G. Mahlberg's ''Cannabis'' Research]. North American Industrial Hemp Council. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref> at [[Indiana University (Bloomington)|Indiana University]], conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and [[chemotaxonomic]] variation among 157 ''Cannabis'' accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their ''Cannabis'' [[germplasm]] collection. They used [[gas chromatography]] to determine cannabinoid content and to infer [[allele]] frequencies of the [[gene]] that controls CBD and THC production within the studied populations, and concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species, but not ''C. ruderalis.''<ref name = hillig2004a/> The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to ''C. sativa''. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to ''C. indica''. In 2005, Hillig published a [[Genetic testing|genetic analysis]] of the same set of accessions (this paper was the first in the series, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing ''C. sativa'', ''C. indica'', and (tentatively) ''C. ruderalis''.<ref name = "hillig2005a"/> In his doctoral [[dissertation]] published the same year, Hillig stated that [[principal components analysis]] of [[phenotypic]] (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that [[canonical analysis|canonical variates analysis]] resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa.<ref name = "hillig2005b">Hillig, Karl William. 2005. A systematic investigation of ''Cannabis''. Doctoral Dissertation. Department of Biology, Indiana University. Bloomington, Indiana. Published by [http://wwwlib.umi.com/dxweb/gateway UMI]. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref> Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the [[terpenoid]] content of the [[essential oil]] of ''Cannabis'' revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain [[sesquiterpene]] alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.<ref name = "hillig2004b">Hillig, Karl W. 2004. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4R-4CPD4SG-1&_user=10&_coverDate=10%2F31%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=9e491613fa59a0a2cb5b5a3f83cd3118 A chemotaxonomic analysis of terpenoid variation in ''Cannabis'']. ''Biochemical Systematics and Ecology'' '''32''': 875-891. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref> Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat ''C. ruderalis'' as a separate species from ''C. sativa'' at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.

In September 2005, [[New Scientist]] reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of ''Cannabis'' based on analysis of [[mitochondria]]l and [[chloroplast]] DNA.<ref name = "newscientist">2005. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725175.200 Rasta lends its name to a third type of ''Cannabis'']. ''New Scientist'' '''2517''': 12. Retrieved on 24 February 2007</ref> The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal ''Forensic Science International''. When the article was finally published, there was no mention of "Rasta."<ref name = gilmore2007a>Gilmore, S., R. Peakall, and J. Robertson. 2007. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6W-4N1SJSG-1&_user=10&_coverDate=10%2F25%2F2007&_rdoc=17&_fmt=high&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235041%232007%23998279997%23667498%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5041&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=28&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3a350afeb216af59a8129f894dce17ee Organelle DNA haplotypes reflect crop-use characteristics and geographic origins of ''Cannabis sativa'']. ''Forensic Science International'' 172(2-3): 179-190. Retrieved on 29 December 2008</ref>

<!--As of 2007, taxonomy web sites continue to list ''Cannabis'' as a type of species, whilst listing Cannabis Sativa, Cannabis Indica and Cannabis Ruderalis as a type of subspecies.<ref name = "GRIN">USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?2034 Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN)], National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = "APNI">Barlow, Snow. 2006. [http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Cannabis.html Sorting ''Cannabis'' names]. Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database. The University of Melbourne. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = "ITIS">[http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=19109 Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)]. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = "taxonomicon">[http://www.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=6455 The Taxonomicon]. Universal Taxonomic Services. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref>-->

===Popular usage===
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type ''Cannabis''. ''Cannabis'' aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, [[Range (biology)|native range]], aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" is used to designate shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the term used to describe the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type ''Cannabis'' often describe the ancestry or gross [[phenotype|phenotypic]] characteristics of [[cultivar]]s by categorizing them as "pure indica," "mostly indica," "indica/sativa," "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa."

On of the most popular and potent sativas in Africa is [[Malawi Gold]], locally know as [[Malawi Gold|Chamba]]. It is internationally renowed for its potency and its flavor.

==Reproduction==
===Breeding systems===
[[File:CannabisSeeds.jpg|thumb|''Cannabis sativa'' seeds.]]
''Cannabis'' is predominantly [[dioecious]],<ref name = clarke1991a/><ref name = "ainsworth2000">Ainsworth, C. 2000. [http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/86/2/211 Boys and girls come out to play: the molecular biology of dioecious plants]. ''Annals of Botany'' '''86'''(2): 211-221. Retrieved on 24 February 2007</ref> although many monoecious varieties have been described.<ref name = "meijer1999a">de Meijer, E. P. M. 1999. ''Cannabis'' germplasm resources. In: Ranalli P. (ed.). ''Advances in Hemp Research'', Haworth Press, Binghamton, NY, pp. 131-151. ISBN 1-56022-872-5</ref> Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.<ref name = "mignoni1999">{{cite web|url = http://www.globalhemp.com/Archives/Government_Research/UN/03_odccp_bulletin.html|title = Cannabis as a licit crop: recent developments in Europe|accessdate = February, 2008}}</ref><ref name = "schumann1999">Schumann, E., A. Peil, and W. E. Weber. 1999. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/j0581734t3222674/?p=17537b5e5396490d82c1dd09c0da993d&pi=9 Preliminary results of a German field trial with different hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.) accessions]. ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' '''46'''(4): 399-407. Retrieved on 24 February 2007</ref><ref name = "ranalli2004a">Ranalli, P. 2004. Current status and future scenarios of hemp breeding. ''Euphytica'' '''140'''(1): 121-131.</ref> Many populations have been described as sexually labile.<ref name = "mandolino2002a"/><ref name = "hirata1924">Hirata, K. 1924. Sex reversal in hemp. ''Journal of the Society of Agriculture and Forestry'' '''16''': 145-168.</ref><ref name = "schaffner1931">Schaffner, J. H. 1931. The fluctuation curve of sex reversal in staminate hemp plants induced by photoperiodicity. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''18'''(6): 424-430.</ref>

[[File:Trichomes.jpg|thumb|left|''Cannabis'' flower with visible [[trichomes]].]]
[[File:Cannabis male flowers.JPG|thumb|Male ''Cannabis'' pollen sacs.]]
As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, ''Cannabis'' exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.<ref name = "truta2002a">Truta, E., E. Gille, E. Toth, and M. Maniu. 2002. [http://jag.igr.poznan.pl/2002-Volume-43/4/pdf/2002_Volume_43_4-451-462.pdf Biochemical differences in ''Cannabis sativa'' L. depending on sexual phenotype]. ''Journal of Applied Genetics'' '''43'''(4): 451-462. Retrieved on 24 February 2007</ref> Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where typically the female flowers are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops.<ref name = "mignoni1999"/> However, the so-called "sativa" drug strains often produce monoecious individuals, probably as a result of inbreeding.

===Mechanisms of sex determination===
''Cannabis'' has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of [[sex determination]] among the dioecious plants.<ref name = "truta2002a"/> Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in ''Cannabis''.

Based on studies of sex reversal in [[hemp]], it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an [[XY sex-determination system]] is present.<ref name = "hirata1924"/> At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The [[X0 sex-determination system|X:A system]] was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.<ref name = "bridges1925">Bridges, C. B. 1925. Sex in relation to chromosomes and genes. ''American Naturalist'' '''59''': 127-137.</ref> Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation,<ref name = "schaffner1929">Schaffner, J. H. 1929. Heredity and sex. ''Ohio Journal of Science'' '''29''' (1): 289-300.</ref> and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.<ref name = "schaffner1931"/>

Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants.<ref name = "ainsworth2000"/> Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.<ref name = "negrutiu2001">Negrutiu, I., B. Vyskot, N. Barbacar, S. Georgiev, and F. Moneger. 2001. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1540173 Dioecious plants; a key to the early events of sex chromosome evolution]. ''Plant Physiology'' '''127''' (4): 418-424.</ref>

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for ''Cannabis''. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".<ref name = "ainsworth2000"/>

[[File:Hemp plants-cannabis sativa-single 3.JPG|thumb|A male hemp plant.]]
[[File:Cannabis indica Selkem.jpg|thumb|Dense raceme of carpellate flowers typical of drug-type varieties of ''Cannabis''.]]

The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a [[karyotype]]. ''Cannabis'' was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see [[Cytogenetics#History|History of Cytogenetics]]). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX.<ref name = "menzel1964">Menzel, Margaret Y. 1964. Meiotic chromosomes of monoecious Kentucky hemp (''Cannabis sativa''). ''Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club'' '''91''' (3): 193-205.</ref> According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of ''Cannabis'' had been published as of 1996.<ref name = "hong1996a">Shao Hong and Robert C. Clarke. 1996. [http://www.hempfood.com/IHA/iha03207.html Taxonomic studies of Cannabis in China]. ''Journal of the International Hemp Association'' '''3''' (2): 55-60. Retrieved on 25 February 2007</ref> Proponents of the XY system state that [[Y chromosome]] is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.<ref name = "peil2003">Peil, A., H. Flachowsky, E. Schumann, and W. E. Weber. 2003. [[Sex linkage|Sex-linked]] AFLP markers indicate a pseudoautosomal region in hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.). ''Theoretical and Applied Genetics'' '''107''' (1): 102-109.</ref>

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors<ref name = "sakamoto1995a">Sakamoto, K., K. Shimomura, Y. Komeda, H. Kamada, and S. Satoh. 1995. [http://pcp.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/36/8/1549 A male-associated DNA sequence in a dioecious plant, ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Plant & Cell Physiology'' '''36'''(8): 1549-1554. Retrieved on 25 February 2007</ref><ref name = "sakamoto2005a">Sakamoto, K., T. Abe, T. Matsuyama, S. Yoshida, N. Ohmido, K. Fukui, and S. Satoh. 2005. [http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ppv/RPViewDoc?_handler_=HandleInitialGet&journal=gen&volume=48&calyLang=eng&articleFile=g05-056.pdf RAPD markers encoding retrotransposable elements are linked to the male sex in ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Genome'' '''48'''(5): 931-936. Retrieved on 25 February 2007</ref> have used [[RAPD]] to isolate several [[genetic marker]] sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in ''Cannabis'' (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and [[Amplified fragment length polymorphism|AFLP]].<ref name = "meijer2003a">Meijer, Etienne P. M. de, M. Bagatta, A. Carboni, P. Crucitti, V. M. Cristiana Moliterni, P. Ranalli, and G. Mandolino. 2003. [http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/163/1/335 The Inheritance of Chemical Phenotype in ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Genetics'' '''163'''(1): 335-346. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = "mandolino2002a">Mandolino, Giuseppe and Paolo Ranalli. 2002. [https://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=WHMFTL5P4HRL8KGL589LPHULAS5X554F&ID=8157 The applications of molecular markers in genetics and breeding of hemp]. ''Journal of Industrial Hemp'' '''7'''(1): 7-23. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name = "torjek2002">Törjék, O., N. Bucherna, E. Kiss, H. Homoki, Z. Finta-Korpelová, I. Bócsa, I. Nagy, and L. E. Heszky. 2002. Novel male specific molecular markers (MADC5, MADC6) for sex identification in hemp. ''Euphytica'' '''127''': 209-218.</ref> Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,<blockquote>"It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination.<ref name = "ainsworth2000" />"</blockquote>

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.<ref name = "tanurdzic2004">Tanurdzic, M. and J. A. Banks. 2004. Sex-determining mechanisms in land plants. ''Plant Cell'' '''16''' (suppl.): S61-71.</ref> Many researchers have suggested that sex in ''Cannabis'' is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors.<ref name = schaffner1931/> Ainsworth reviews that treatment with [[auxin]] and [[ethylene]] have feminizing effects, and that treatment with [[cytokinins]] and [[gibberellins]] have masculinizing effects.<ref name=ainsworth2000/> It has been reported that sex can be reversed in ''Cannabis'' using chemical treatment.<ref name = "mohanram1982">Mohan Ram, H. Y., and R. Sett. 1982. Induction of fertile male flowers in genetically female ''Cannabis sativa'' plants by [[silver nitrate]] and silver thiosulfate anionic complex. ''Theoretical and Applied Genetics'' '''62''': 369-375.</ref> A [[PCR]]-based method for the detection of female-associated [[Polymorphism (biology)|DNA polymorphisms]] by [[genotyping]] has been developed.<ref name=PCR>Journal of Industrial Hemp 2003 Vol 8 issue 1 page 5-9, Female-Associated DNA Polymorphisms of Hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.), Hong Shao, Shu-Juan Song, Robert C. Clarke</ref>

==Industrial and personal uses==
''Cannabis'' is used for a wide variety of purposes.

===Hemp===
{{Main|Hemp}}
Hemp is the natural, durable soft fiber from the [[Plant stem|stalk]] of ''Cannabis'' sativa plants that grow upwards of 20 feet tall. Cannabis plants used for hemp production are not valued for recreational uses as the plants that are cultivated for hemp produce minimal levels of [[THC]], analogous to attempting to get [[drunk]] from [[low-alcohol beer]]. ''Cannabis'' plants intended for any drug cultivation cannot be hidden in a hemp field either, as the size and height of each are significantly different.<ref name = "naihc.org">http://www.naihc.org/hemp_information/hemp_facts.html</ref>

Hemp producers sell hemp seeds as a health food, as they are rich in heart-healthy, [[essential fatty acids]], [[amino acids]] (both essential and nonessential), [[vitamins]] and [[minerals]]. Hemp "milk" is a milk substitute also made from hemp seeds that is both dairy and gluten-free.<ref>http://www.worldpantry.com/cgi-bin/ncommerce/ExecMacro/livingharvest/home.d2w/report</ref>

Hemp is fairly easy to grow and matures very fast compared to many crops, most notably [[trees]] used for paper. Compared to [[cotton]] for clothing, hemp cloth is known to be of superior strength and longer-lasting. The fibers may also be used to form [[cordage]] for industrial-strength ropes. Hemp plants also require little pesticides and herbicides due to its height, density and foliage. This also makes the hemp plant environmentally very friendly.

Hemp can be utilized for 25,000 very durable textile products,<ref name = "naihc.org"/> ranging from [[paper]] and [[clothing]] to [[biofuels]] (from the oils found in the seeds), [[medical cannabis|medicines]] and [[Hemp#Composite materials|construction material]]. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from [[China]] to [[Europe]] (and later [[North America]]) for the last 12,000 years of history.<ref name = "naihc.org"/><ref>http://www.hempfood.com/IHA/iha02111.html</ref>

===Recreational use===
[[File:Drug danger and dependence.png|thumb|right|450px|Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs.<ref>http://web.cgu.edu/faculty/gabler/drug_toxicity.htm</ref>]]
{{Main|Cannabis (drug)}}
{{See also|Tetrahydrocannabinol|Cannabidiol|Effects of cannabis}}
Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[caffeine]] and [[tobacco]]. In the United States alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried Cannabis, with 25 million Americans using it within the past year.<ref>http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=5442</ref>

The psychoactive effects of Cannabis are known to have a biphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, [[tetrahydrocannabinol]]. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking; [[introspection]] and [[metacognition]] have been reported, amongst cases of [[anxiety]] and [[paranoia]].<ref name = "erowid.org">http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_effects.shtml</ref> Finally, the tertiary psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increase in heart rate and hunger, believed to be caused by [[11-Hydroxy-THC]], a psychoactive metabolite of [[THC]] produced in the [[liver]].

Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a [[smoking pipe (non-tobacco)|smoking pipe]], [[bong]] or [[vaporizer]].<ref name = "erowid.org"/> However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.

Various [[Cannabis(drug)#Forms|forms of the drug cannabis]] exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil<ref name = erowid/> which, due to appearance, are more susceptible to [[Cannabis(drug)#Adulterants|adulterants]] when left unregulated.

The plant ''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' is known to cause more of a "high" by stimulating hunger and by producing a rather more comedic, or energetic feeling. Conversely, the ''Cannabis indica'' plant is known to cause more of a "stoned" type of feeling, possibly due to a higher CBD to THC ratio.<ref>http://www.growery.org/3032/Indica-Sativa-Whats-the-difference</ref>

[[Cannabidiol]] (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by itself<ref name = "pmid19204413">{{cite journal|author = Ahrens J, Demir R, Leuwer M, ''et al.''|title = The nonpsychotropic cannabinoid cannabidiol modulates and directly activates alpha-1 and alpha-1-Beta glycine receptor function|journal = [[Pharmacology]]|volume = 83|issue = 4|pages = 217–222|year = 2009|pmid = 19204413|doi = 10.1159/000201556|url = http://content.karger.com/produktedb/produkte.asp?typ=fulltext&file=000201556|accessdate = 2009-08-04}}</ref> (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to [[caffeine]]),{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} attenuates, or reduces<ref>http://www.springerlink.com/index/QX40446564488706.pdf</ref> the higher anxiety levels caused by [[THC]] alone.<ref name="pmid19124693">{{cite journal|author = Fusar-Poli P, Crippa JA, Bhattacharyya S, ''et al.''|title = Distinct effects of {delta}9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on neural activation during emotional processing|journal = [[Archives of General Psychiatry]]|volume = 66|issue = 1|pages = 95–105|year = 2009|month = January|pmid = 19124693|doi = 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519|url = http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19124693|accessdate = 2009-08-04}}</ref>

According to the UK medical journal ''The Lancet'', Cannabis has a lower rate of [[drug addiction|dependence]] compared to both nicotine and alcohol.<ref name = "drugpolicy.org">http://www.drugpolicy.org/marijuana/factsmyths/</ref> However, everyday use of Cannabis can in some cases, be correlated with some psychological [[Withdrawal|withdrawal symptoms]] such as irritability, and insomnia<ref name = "erowid.org"/> and evidence could suggest that if a user experiences stress, the likeliness of getting a [[panic attack]] increases due to an increase of THC metabolites.<ref>http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=7951</ref><ref>http://cannabis.net/panic-attacks/pd.html</ref> However, any Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.<ref name = "drugpolicy.org"/>

===Medical use===
{{Main|Medical cannabis}}
<!-- PLEASE, do not add more detail to this section, contributions are more than welcome at [[Medical cannabis]] THANKS. -->
A synthetic form of the main psychoactive cannabinoid in ''Cannabis'', Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is used as a treatment for a wide range of medical conditions.<ref name="Costa2007">{{cite journal |author=Costa B |title=On the pharmacological properties of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) |journal=Chemistry & Biodiversity |volume=4 |issue=8 |pages=1664–77 |year=2007 |month=August |pmid=17712813 |doi=10.1002/cbdv.200790146}}</ref>

In the United States, although the [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) does acknowledge that "there has been considerable interest in its use for the treatment of a number of conditions, including glaucoma, AIDS wasting, neuropathic pain, treatment of spasticity associated with multiple sclerosis, and chemotherapy-induced nausea," the agency has not approved "medical marijuana". There are currently 2 oral forms of cannabis (cannabinoids) available by prescription in the United States for nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy: dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone (Cesamet). Dronabinol is also approved for the treatment of anorexia associated with AIDS.<ref>{{cite journal|author = King SA|title = Cannabinoids and Pain|journal = Psychiatric Times|volume = 25|issue = 2|date = 1 February 2008|url = http://www.consultantlive.com/pain/article/10168/1147591}}</ref> The FDA does facilitate scientific investigations into the medical uses of [[cannabinoid]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fda.gov/ola/2004/marijuana0401.html|title = Testimony before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, Committee on Government Reform|author = Meyer, Robert J|publisher = U.S. Food and Drug Administration|accessdate = 2007-09-15}}</ref>

In a collection of writings on medical marijuana by 45 researchers, a literature review on the medicinal uses of ''Cannabis'' and cannabinoids concluded that established uses include easing of nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and weight loss; "well-confirmed effect" was found in the treatment of spasticity, painful conditions (i.e. neurogenic pain), movement disorders, asthma, and glaucoma. Reported but "less-confirmed" effects included treatment of allergies, inflammation, infection, epilepsy, depression, [[bipolar disorder]]s, [[anxiety disorder]], dependency and withdrawal. Basic level research was being carried out at the time on [[Autoimmunity|autoimmune disease]], cancer, neuroprotection, fever, disorders of blood pressure.<ref name = "GrotenhermanRussoChapter11">{{Cite journal|title = Cannabis and cannabinoids: pharmacology, toxicology, and therapeutic potential|chapter = Chapter 11, Review of therapeutic effects|url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en|isbn = 0789015080|page = 123|publisher = Haworth Press|year = 2002|last1 = Grotenhermen|first1 = F.|last2 = Russo|first2 = E.|accessdate = 2009-05-18}}</ref>

Clinical trials conducted by the American [[Marijuana Policy Project]], have shown the efficacy of cannabis as a treatment for cancer and [[AIDS]] patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to [[chemotherapy]] and other aggressive treatments.<ref>[http://www.mpp.org/news/low-dose-pot-eases-pain-while.html Low-Dose Pot Eases Pain While Keeping Mind Clear<!-- Bot generated title -->].</ref> A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named [[dronabinol]] has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer's patients.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3169901.stm|title = Cannabis lifts Alzheimer appetite|publisher = BBC|accessdate = 2007-09-15 | date=21 August 2003}}</ref> Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/[[AIDS]] and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of ''Cannabis'' at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than whole cannabis and has not been shown to be effective or safe.<ref name = "Respectable Reefer">{{cite news|last = Greenberg|first = Gary|title = Respectable Reefer|publisher = Mother Jones|date = 2005-11-01|url = http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2005/11/respectable-reefer?page=3|accessdate = 2007-04-03}}</ref>

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this [[intraocular pressure]]. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some studies have shown a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke cannabis,<ref>{{cite journal|author = Merritt JC, Crawford WJ, Alexander PC, Anduze AL, Gelbart SS|title = Effect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucoma|journal = Ophthalmology|volume = 87|issue = 3|pages = 222–8|year = 1980|month = March|pmid = 7053160|doi = |url = }}</ref> but the effects are generally short-lived. There exists some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a [[cannabinoid receptor]] on the [[ciliary body]] called the CB receptor.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Goldberg J, Flowerdew G, Smith E, Brody JA, Tso MO|title = Factors associated with age-related macular degeneration. An analysis of data from the first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey|journal = Am. J. Epidemiol.|volume = 128|issue = 4|pages = 700–10|year = 1988|month = October|pmid = 3421236|doi = |url = http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/128/4/700}}</ref> Although ''Cannabis'' may not be the best therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Porcella A, Maxia C, Gessa GL, Pani L.|title = The synthetic cannabinoid WIN55212-2 decreases the intraocular pressure in human glaucoma resistant to conventional therapies|journal = Eur J Neurosci|year = 2001|issue = 13|pages = 409–12|doi = 10.1046/j.0953-816X.2000.01401.x|volume = 13}}</ref>

Medical cannabis is also used for [[Analgesic|analgesia]], or pain relief. It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder.<ref name = autogenerated2>{{cite web|url = http://www.medboardwatch.com/wb/pages/therapeutic-effects.php|title = Review of Therapeutic Effects|accessdate = 2007-08-20}}</ref> Case reports have found that ''Cannabis'' can relieve [[tic]]s in people with [[obsessive compulsive disorder]] and [[Tourette syndrome]]. Patients treated with [[tetrahydrocannabinol]], the main psychoactive chemical found in ''Cannabis'', reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.<ref name = "ocd-ts-99">{{cite journal|author = K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich|title = Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol|journal = American Journal of Psychiatry|year = 1999|volume = 156|issue = 3|url = http://www.marijuana.org/AmJoPsychMarch99.html|accessdate = 2007-09-15}}</ref><ref name = "ocd-ts-02">{{cite journal|author = K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, A. Koblenz, M. Jöbges, H. Kolbe, T. Daldrup, H.M. Emrich|title = Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome with Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Randomized Crossover Trial|journal = Pharmacopsychiatry|year = 2002|volume = 35|issue = 2|url = http://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/pharmaco/doi/10.1055/s-2002-25028|accessdate = 2007-09-15|doi = 10.1055/s-2002-25028|page = 57|pmid = 11951146}}</ref><ref name = "ocd-ts-88">{{cite journal|author = R. Sandyk, G. Awerbuch|title = Marijuana and Tourette's Syndrome|journal = Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology|year = 1988|volume = 8|issue = 6|url = http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/mjtouret.htm|accessdate = 2007-09-15|doi = 10.1097/00004714-198812000-00021|page = 444}}</ref> Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found.<ref name = "ocd-ts-99"/> A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in ''Cannabis'' might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.<ref name = "ADBlock">{{cite journal|author = Ramíirez, B. G., C. Blázquez, T. Gómez del Pulgar, M. Guzmán, and M. L. de Ceballos|year = 2005|url = http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/25/8/1904|title=Prevention of Alzheimer's disease pathology by cannabinoids: neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation|journal = Journal of Neuroscience|volume = 25|issue = 8^|pages = 1904–1913|accessdate = 2007-02-27|doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4540-04.2005|pmid = 15728830}}</ref> THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.<ref name = "steffens2005">{{cite journal|author = Steffens S, Veillard NR, Arnaud C, ''et al.''|title = Low dose oral cannabinoid therapy reduces progression of atherosclerosis in mice|journal = Nature|volume = 434|issue = 7034|pages = 782–6|year = 2005|month = April|pmid = 15815632|doi = 10.1038/nature03389|url = }}</ref>

Another potential use for medical cannabis is movement disorders. ''Cannabis'' is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with [[multiple sclerosis]]; this has been acknowledged by the [[Institute of Medicine]], but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures.<ref>{{cite book|author = Randall, Blanchard|title = Medical use of marijuana policy and regulatory issues|publisher = Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress|year = 1992|id = OCLC 29975643}}</ref> A synthetic version of the major active compound in ''Cannabis'', THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug [[dronabinol]] (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug [[Sativex]], an extract of cannabis administered as a [[sublingual]] spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.<ref name = "SativexC">{{cite web|author = Koch, W.|date = 2005-06-23|url = http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-06-23-pot-spray_x.htm|title = Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada|publisher = USA Today|accessdate = 2007-02-27}}</ref>

Cannabis was manufactured and sold by U.S. pharmaceutical companies from the 1880s through the 1930s, but the lack of documented information on the frequency and effectiveness of its use makes it difficult to evaluate its medicinal value in these forms.  Because discussions of these earlier documented medical uses of cannabis are not commonly encountered, they are memorialized here.

Cannabis in the form of a tincture and a fluidextract is documented in a 1929-30 catalog, Parke Davis & Co., which lists Cannabis, U.S.P. (American Cannabis), Fluid Extract No. 598 for $5 per pint; Cannabis, U.S.P. (East Indian Cannabis), Fluid Extract No. 106 for $36 per pint; and Cannabis (Tincture No. 14) for $3.60 per pint.  The catalog states that Cannabis, U.S.P. fluid extract "is prepared from ''Cannabis sativa'' grown in America. Extensive pharmacological and clinical tests have shown that its medicinal action cannot be distinguished from that of the fluid made from imported East Indian cannabis. ''Introduced to the medical profession by us''."<ref>''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company''. Detroit: Parke, Davis & Co., pages 82-83.</ref> 

Importantly, cannabis is listed in the ''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company'' as an active ingredient in ten products for cough, colic, neuralgia, cholera mordus and other medical conditions, as well as a "narcotic, analgesic, and sedative."  Under "Miscellaneous Products" are listed CHLOR-ANODYNE, containing in each fluid ounce morphine hydrocholoride, 2-7/8 grs.; Fluid Extract Cannabis, U.S.P., 46 mins.; Diluted hydrocyanic acid, 9 mins.; Chloroform, 46 grs.; Oil Peppermint, 1-1/2 mins.; and Tincture Capsicum, U.S.P., 3/4 min. (alcohol, 67%).  It is described as "a promptly efficient and pleasant remedy for colic, cholera morbus, neuralgia, spasmodic pains, etc.  Dose, 15 minims, to be repeated in half an hour if necessary."  It was sold in ounce vials (65 cents per ounce), in 4 fl. oz. bottles at $1.95 per bottle, and in 16 fl.oz. bottles at $6.90 per bottle.<ref>''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company''. Detroit: Parke, Davis & Co., page 12.</ref>  CODEINE COUGH SEDATIVE (Syrupus Codeinae Compositus) contains in each fluid ounce codeine phosphate, 1 gr.; Extract Cannabis, U.S.P., 1/2 gr.; White Pine bark, 32 grs.; Wild Cherry, 32 grs.; Eriodictyon, 16 grs.; Balsam Poplar buds (Balm of Gilead), 4 grs.; Choloroform, 2 grs.; and Glycerin, 120 mins. (alcohol 20%).  Dose: 1 to 2 fluid drachms.  The catalog states: "This combination is recommended for use in the treatment of dry bronchitis and irritating night cough.  It is suitable for administration to children as well as adults, and can be continued from day to day in cases of subacute bronchitis with a minimum of 'drug' risk—for not only is codeine the safest of all opium derivatives, there is very little of it in this formula.  A special indication for the use of Codeine Cough Sedative is the headache and nervous excitement that frequently attend paroxysms of coughing."  This product was marketed in 16-fl. oz. bottles ($24.80 per dozen) and gallon bottles ($14.30 per gallon).<ref>''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company''. Detroit: Parke, Davis & Co., page 17.</ref> 

The ''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog'' also lists compund medications containing cannabis that in some cases were apparently formulated by medical doctors, in its "Pills and Tablets" section, as follows:  SEDATIVE (Dr. Brown), Compressed Tablet No. 322, was made from Sodium bromide, 2-1/2 grs.; Potassium bromide, 2-1/2 grs.; Ammonium bromide, 2-1/2 grs.; Tincture Hyoscyamus, 8 mins.; and Tincture Cannabis, 5 mins.  The cost was 65 cents per 100 tablets, and $4.50 per 1,000 tablets."<ref>''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company''. Detroit: Parke, Davis & Co., page 194.</ref>  NEURALGIC (''Neuralgic Idiopathic''),(Brown-Sequard), Pill No. 414, Ext. Hyoscyamus, 2/3 gr.; Ext. Ignatia, 1/2 gr.; Ext. Opium, 1/2 gr.; Ext. Cannabis, 1/4 gr.; Ext. Conium fruit, 2/3 gr.; Ext. Stramonium, 1/5 gr.; Ext. Aconite Root, 1/15 gr.; and Ext. Belladonna leaves, 1/6 gr."  The cost was $2.55 per 100 pills, and $6.50 per 500.  The formula for a "half-strength" pill is given in the footnote.<ref>''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company''. Detroit: Parke, Davis & Co., page 186.  NEURALGIC (''Neuralgic Idiopathic'', half-strength), (Brown-Sequard), Pill No. 415, is Ext. Hyoscyamus, 1/3 gr.; Ext. Ignatia, 1/4 gr.; Ext. Opium, 1/4 gr.; Ext. Cannabis, 1/8 gr.; Ext. Conium fruit, 1/3 gr.; Ext. Stramonium, 1/10 gr.; Ext. Aconite root, 1/30 gr.; and Ext. Belladonna leaves, 1/12 gr.  The cost was $1.45 per 100 pills and $6.50 per 500.</ref>  NEURALGIC, IMPROVED (Compressed Tablet No. 169), Quinine sulphate, 2 grs.; Acetanilid, 2 grs.; Ext. Hyoscyamus, 1/2 gr.; Arsenic trioxide, 1/100 gr.; Strychnine sulphate, 1/60 gr.; and Ext. Cannabis, 1/4 gr.  Cost was $1.45 per 100 tablets.<ref>''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company''. Detroit: Parke, Davis & Co., page 187.</ref>  CHLORODYNE (Compressed Tablet No. 14), Morphine hydrochloride, 1/6 gr.; Ext. Cannabis, 1/4 gr.; Nitroglycerin (Glyceryl trinitrate) 1/300 gr.; Ext. Hyoscyamus, 1/2 gr.; Olroresin Capsicum, 1/10 min.; and Oil Peppermint, q.s.  The cost was $2.70 per 100 tablets.  The formula for a "half-strength" tablet is given in the footnote.<ref>''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company''. Detroit: Parke, Davis & Co., page 171.  CHLORODYNE No. 2 (Chocolate-coated Tablet No. 186), Morphine hydrochloride, 1/12 gr.; Ext. Cannabis, 1/8 gr.; Nitroglycerin (Glyceryl trinitrate) 1/600 gr.; Ext. Hyoscyamus, 1/4 gr.; Olroresin Capsicum, 1/20 min.; and Oil Peppermint, q.s.  The cost was $1.60 per 100 tablets.</ref>  In the section on "Medicinal Elixirs," is listed BROMIDE AND CHLORAL COMPOUND (No. 127), consisting of Chloral hydrate, 120 grs.; Potassium bromide, 120 grs.; Ext. Hyoscyamus, 1 gr.; and Ext. Cannabis, 1 gr.  The cost was $19.80 per pint (16 fl. oz.) per dozen pints, and $15.20 per gallon bottle.<ref>''1929-1930 Physicians' Catalog of the Pharmaceutical and Biological Products of Parke, Davis & Company''. Detroit: Parke, Davis & Co., page 97.</ref>  Although BROMIDE AND CHLORAL COMPOUND is listed as a Medicinal Elixir, the formula does not disclose any ingredients to render it in liquid form.

As cannabis is further legalized for medicinal use, it is possible that some of the foregoing compound medicines, whose formulas have been copied exactly as published, may be scientifically tested to determine whether they are effective medications. Writing in the [[Canadian Medical Association Journal]], smoking cannabis from a pipe may significantly relieve chronic pain in patients with damaged nerves.<ref>BBC report,"Cannabis may relieve chronic nerve pain"[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-11110798],[[BBC]],30 August 2010.</ref>

===Religious use===
{{Main|Religious and spiritual use of cannabis}}
''Cannabis'' is first referred to in [[Hindu]] [[Vedas]] between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the ''[[Atharvaveda]]''. By the 10th century CE, it has been suggested that it was referred to by some in India as "food of the gods".<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/history/first12000/1.htm|title = Marijuana - The First Twelve Thousand Years|first = Ernest L.|last = Abel|year = 1980}} Chapter 1: Cannabis in the Ancient World. India: The First Marijuana-Oriented Culture.</ref> Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of [[Holi]]. In [[Buddhism]], cannabis is genereally regarded as an intoxicant and therefore a hindrance to development of meditation and clear awareness. [[Shaman]]ic use of ''Cannabis'' in China has been dated to at least 1000 BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://en.ce.cn/National/culture/200701/26/t20070126_10220745.shtml|title = Perforated skulls provide evidence of craniotomy in ancient China|publisher = China Economic Net|date = 2007-01-26}}</ref> In ancient [[Germanic culture]], ''Cannabis'' was associated with the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] love goddess, [[Freya]].<ref name = "pilcher">{{cite book|last = Pilcher|first = Tim|title = Spliffs 3: The Last Word in Cannabis Culture?|year = 2005|page = 34|publisher = Collins & Brown Publishers|isbn = 1843403102}} ISBN 9781843403104.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last = Vindheim|first = Jan Bojer|url = http://www.vindheim.net/hamp/hemp.html|title = The History of Hemp in Norway|work = The Journal of Industrial Hemp|publisher = International Hemp Association}}</ref> An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain ''Cannabis''.<ref>{{cite book|last = Kaplan|first = Aryeh|title = [[The Living Torah]]|location = New York|year = 1981|page=442}}</ref> [[Sufi]]s have used ''Cannabis'' in a spiritual context since the 13th century CE.<ref>{{cite book|last = Ernest|first = Abel|year = 1979|title = A Comprehensive Guide to Cannabis Literature|page = 14|publisher = Greenwood Press|isbn = 0313207216}} ISBN 9780313207211.</ref>

In modern times the [[Rastafari movement]] has embraced ''Cannabis'' as a sacrament.<ref>{{cite book|title = Dread, The Rastafarians of Jamaica|author = [[Joseph Owens]]|isbn = 0-4359-8650-3|year = 1982|publisher = Heinemann|location = London}}</ref> Elders of the modern [[religious movement]] known as the [[Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church]] consider ''Cannabis'' to be the [[Eucharist]], claiming it as an oral tradition from [[Ethiopia]] dating back to the time of [[Christ]], even though the movement was founded in the [[United States]] in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/potbible.htm|title = Marijuana and the Bible|publisher = Schaffer Library of Drug Policy|author = The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church|accessdate = 2007-09-13}}</ref> Like the Rastafari, some modern [[Gnostic]] Christian sects have asserted that ''Cannabis'' is the [[Tree of Life (Judeo-Christian)|Tree of Life]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://rastafari.tribe.net/thread/0838144c-cce9-45ac-982b-5f0e5fccd07d|title = Zion Light Ministry|accessdate = 2007-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author = Chris Bennett, Lynn & Osburn, Judy Osburn|title = Green Gold: the Tree of LifeMarijuana in Magic & Religion|publisher = Access Unlimited|year = 1938|isbn = 0-9629-8722-0|page=418}}</ref> Other organized [[religions]] founded in the 20th century that treat ''Cannabis'' as a [[sacrament]] are the [[THC Ministry]],<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.thc-ministry.org/|title = The Hawai'i Cannabis Ministry|accessdate = 2007-09-13}}</ref> the [[Way of Infinite Harmony]], [[Cantheism]],<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.ebeneezer.net/ritual/vegetable/offsite/Cantheist.html|title = Cantheism|accessdate = 2007-09-13}}</ref> the [[Cannabis Assembly]]<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.cannabisassembly.org/|title = Cannabis Assembly|accessdate = 2007-09-13}}</ref> and the [[Church of Cognizance]].

==Aspects of ''Cannabis'' production and use==
[[File:Illegal cannabis field before burning.jpg|190px|thumb|''Cannabis'' field seized by authorities.]]

*[[Cannabis cultivation]] discusses aspects of cultivation for medicinal and recreational drug purposes.
*[[Cannabis (drug)]] discusses its use as a recreational [[drug]].
*[[Health issues and the effects of cannabis]] discusses the [[pharmacology]], physical, and mental effects of ''Cannabis'' when used as drug.
*[[Hemp]] discusses its uses as a source of [[house|housing]], [[Vegetable oil|oil]], [[food]], [[Fiber crop|fibers]], and industrial materials.
*[[Legality of cannabis]] focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and using ''Cannabis'' as a drug.
**[[Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom]].
**[[Cannabis rescheduling in the United States]].
**[[Drug policy of the Netherlands]].
*[[Medical Cannabis]] discusses its use as a medication.
*[[Spiritual use of cannabis]] discusses sacramental and religious use.

==See also==
{{Portal|Cannabis}}
*[[Cannabis (drug)]]
*[[Cannabis cultivation]]
*[[Cannabis Social Club]]
*[[Hash, Marihuana & Hemp Museum]]
*[[Legality of cannabis by country]]
*[[Medical cannabis]]
*[[Spiritual use of cannabis]]
*[[Malawi Gold]](Chamba)

==References==
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<references /></div>

==Further reading==
*''Cannabis: A History'' (2005) Martin Booth ISBN 0-312-32220-8
*[http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_why.pdf ''UNODC: World Drug Report 2006, Chapter 2: Cannabis: Why We Should Care'' (2006)]
*[http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/?nnodeid=25484 EMCDDA drugs profile: Cannabis (2007)]
*Herer, Jack. ''The Emperor Wears No Clothes: The Authoritative Historical Record of Cannabis and the Conspiracy Against Marijuana''. Ah Ha Publishing Company, 2000. ISBN 1-878125-02-8
*Herer, Jack. [http://www.jackherer.com/chapters.html Internet edition of ''The Emperor Wears No Clothes'']

==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Cannabis}}
{{commons|Cannabis sativa}}
{{wikiquote|Cannabis}}
*[http://www.ipni.org/ipni/advPlantNameSearch.do?find_family=&find_genus=Cannabis&find_species=&find_infrafamily=&find_infragenus=&find_infraspecies=&find_authorAbbrev=&find_includePublicationAuthors=off&find_includeBasionymAuthors=off&find_publicationTitle=&find_isAPNIRecord=on&find_isAPNIRecord=false&find_isGCIRecord=on&find_isGCIRecord=false&find_isIKRecord=on&find_isIKRecord=false&find_rankToReturn=all&output_format=normal&find_sortByFamily=on&find_sortByFamily=off&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch International Plant Names Index (IPNI)]
*[http://www.endocannabinoid.net/ The Endocannabinoid System Network (ECSN)] - Contains medical information to the Endocannabinoid System
*[http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/ Erowid: Cannabis (Marijuana) Vault]

{{Cannabis resources}}
{{Ancient anaesthesia-footer}}
{{Herbal Sedatives}}
{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Medicinal herbs & spices}}

[[Category:Cannabis| ]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Fiber plants]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Psychoactive drugs]]
[[Category:Greek loanwords]]
[[Category:Euphoriants]]

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[[es:Cannabis (género)]]
[[eo:Kanabo]]
[[fa:شاه‌دانه]]
[[fr:Chanvre]]
[[ga:Cannabas]]
[[hsb:Dźiwja konop]]
[[hr:Konoplja]]
[[io:Kanabo]]
[[ilo:Cannabis]]
[[id:Cannabis]]
[[is:Kannabis]]
[[it:Cannabis]]
[[he:קנאביס]]
[[kv:Пыш]]
[[la:Cannabis]]
[[lt:Kanapė]]
[[hu:Kender]]
[[mk:Канабис]]
[[nl:Hennep]]
[[ja:アサ]]
[[no:Hamp]]
[[pt:Cannabis]]
[[ro:Cannabis]]
[[qu:Kañamu]]
[[ru:Конопля]]
[[stq:Hoamp]]
[[sq:Konopi]]
[[simple:Cannabis]]
[[sr:Конопља]]
[[sv:Hampa]]
[[th:กัญชา]]
[[tr:Esrar]]
[[uk:Коноплі (рослина)]]
[[vi:Cần sa]]
[[Category:2Fix]]