View source for Sugar

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{Other uses|Sugar (disambiguation)}}
:''For the common table sugar, see [[sucrose]].''
[[Image:Sugar 2xmacro.jpg|right|thumb|Magnification of grains of [[sucrose]], the most common sugar.]]
{{nutritionalvalue|name = Sugar, granulated|kJ=1619|protein=0 g|fat= 0 g|carbs = 99.98 g|sugars=99.91 g|fiber = 0 g|riboflavin_mg=0.019|calcium_mg=1|iron_mg=0.01|potassium_mg=2|water=0.03 g|source_usda=1|right=1}}
{{nutritionalvalue|name = Sugars, brown|kJ=1576|protein=0 g|fat= 0 g|carbs = 97.33 g|sugars=96.21 g|fiber = 0 g|thiamin_mg=0.008|riboflavin_mg=0.007|niacin_mg=0.082|folate_ug=1|vitB6_mg=0.026|calcium_mg=85|iron_mg=1.91|magnesium_mg=29|phosphorus_mg=22|potassium_mg=346|sodium_mg=39|zinc_mg=0.18|water=1.77 g|source_usda=1|right=1}}

'''Sugar''' is an informal term for a class of edible [[crystal]]line [[carbohydrate]]s, mainly [[sucrose]], [[lactose]], and [[fructose]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://goldbook.iupac.org/S06088.html |title=IUPAC Gold Book - sugars |publisher=Goldbook.iupac.org |date=2009-09-07 |accessdate=2009-12-20}}</ref> characterized by a [[sweet]] [[flavor]]. In [[food]], sugar almost exclusively refers to sucrose, which primarily comes from [[sugar cane]] and [[sugar beet]]. Other sugars are used in industrial food preparation, but are usually known by more specific names—[[glucose]], [[fructose]] or fruit sugar, [[high fructose corn syrup]], etc.

Currently, [[Brazil]] has the highest [[per capita]] production of sugar.<ref name="consumption">International sugar statistics http://www.illovosugar.com/World_of_sugar/Sugar_Statistics/International.aspx</ref>

Sugar, because of its simpler chemical structure, was once assumed (without scientific research) to raise blood glucose levels more quickly than [[starch]], but results from more than twenty studies demonstrate that sugar and starch cause blood glucose to rise at similar rates.  This finding showed that controlling all carbohydrates is necessary for controlling blood glucose levels, the idea behind carbohydrate counting.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beaser |first1= Richard S.|last2=Campbell|first2= Amy P. |edition=2nd |title=The Joslin guide to diabetes: a program for managing your treatment |year= 2005|publisher= Simon and Schuster|isbn= 9780743257848|page=37 |url= http://books.google.com/?id=mbE62ijFyrQC&pg=PA37}}</ref>  Experts now agree that eating too much sugar does not cause [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]].<ref>American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists.  [http://www.aace.com/meetings/consensus/dcc/dc-quiz.php “Diabetes Quiz.”]  Last Modified 2007-07-11.</ref><ref name="dietetic">[[American Dietetic Association]].  [http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:2n_TV121UhgJ:www.eatright.org/WorkArea/linkit.aspx%3FLinkIdentifier%3Did%26ItemID%3D11129%26libID%3D11127+myth+sugar+diabetes+site:eatright.org&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjtMwfYgoHaigsdZA-z9l_UgmrDEcV9B8v3pKpMH185qi8GPEKjMTqqu_-tSxU5g6VaNt7Nq0IU-Y2hejfKn38M6ZKKmvRcs5gjA8gxNGSDkbHVpyz7oSqhPtj07QCw2lhh4qYq&sig=AHIEtbSxUIQaEQpBxuWmoxbR5GmiQXixIQ “Nutrition: Fact vs. Fiction.”]</ref><ref>[[Joslin Diabetes Center]].  [http://www.joslin.org/info/classroom_presentation_on_diabetes_for_elementary_school_age_children.html “Classroom Presentation on Diabetes for Elementary School Age Children.”]</ref><ref>Marschilok, Catherine.  [http://www.jdrf.org/index.cfm?page_id=105381 “Ask a Medical Professional: Diabetes Myths and Misconceptions.”]  ''[[Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation]]''.</ref><ref name="diabetes">[[American Diabetes Association]]. [http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-basics/diabetes-myths/ “Diabetes Myths.”]</ref><ref>[[National Diabetes Education Program]].  [http://ndep.nih.gov/media/Youth_Tips_Diabetes.pdf “Tips for Teens with Diabetes.”]  Last Modified November 2007.</ref>  Excessive calories from sugar, however, can lead to [[obesity]], which may increase the risk of diabetes.<ref name="dietetic" /><ref name="diabetes" />  Sugars such as sucrose are known to contribute to [[dental caries|tooth decay]], and it is impossible to develop cavities in the absence of fermentable carbohydrates.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}  The role of starches is disputed.  Lower rates of tooth decay have been seen in [[hereditary fructose intolerance]].<ref name="pmid19723928">{{cite journal|author = Zero DT, Fontana M, Martínez-Mier EA, Ferreira-Zandoná A, Ando M, González-Cabezas C, Bayne S|title = The biology, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of dental caries: scientific advances in the United States|journal = J Am Dent Assoc|volume = 140|pages = 25S–34S|year = 2009|month = September|pmid = 19723928 |url= http://jada.ada.org/cgi/reprint/140/suppl_1/25S}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of sugar}}

Sugar has been produced in the [[Indian subcontinent]] since ancient times. It was not plentiful or cheap in early times—[[honey]] was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. During his campaign in India, [[Alexander the Great]] was surprised to taste the sweetening agent that was different from honey.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

Originally, people chewed sugarcane raw to extract its sweetness. Sugarcane was a native of tropical [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name=Sharpe/> Different species likely originated in different locations with ''S. barberi'' originating in [[India]] and ''S. edule'' and ''S. officinarum'' coming from [[New Guinea]].<ref name=Sharpe>{{cite web|url=http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/sugar.htm|title=Sharpe, Peter (1998). ''Sugar Cane: Past and Present''. Illinois: Southern Illinois University.}}</ref>

However, sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning [[sugarcane juice]] into granulated crystals that were easier to store and to transport.<ref name=Adas>Adas, Michael (January 2001). ''Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History''. Temple University Press. ISBN 1566398320. Page 311.</ref> Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the [[Gupta dynasty|Imperial Guptas]].<ref name=Adas>Adas, page 311</ref> Indian sailors, consumers of clarified butter and sugar, carried sugar by various [[trade routes]].<ref name=Adas/> Traveling Buddhist monks brought sugar crystallization methods to China.<ref name=Kieschnick1>Kieschnick, John (2003). ''The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture'' [[Princeton University Press]]. ISBN 0691096767.</ref> During the reign of [[Harsha]] (r. 606–647) in [[North India]], Indian envoys in [[Tang Dynasty|Tang China]] taught sugarcane cultivation methods after [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] (r. 626–649) made his interest in sugar known, and China soon established its first [[sugarcane]] cultivation in the seventh century.<ref name="sen 38 40">Sen, Tansen. (2003). ''Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400''. Manoa: Asian Interactions and Comparisons, a joint publication of the University of Hawaii Press and the Association for Asian Studies. ISBN 0824825934. Pages 38–40.</ref> Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 AD, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.<ref name=Kieschnick11>Kieschnick, John (2003). ''The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture'' [[Princeton University Press]]. 258. ISBN 0691096767.</ref> In South Asia, the [[Middle East]] and [[China]], sugar became a staple of cooking and [[dessert]]s.

During the [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution]], [[Arab]] entrepreneurs adopted sugar production techniques from [[History of India|India]] and then refined and transformed them into a large-scale [[industry]]. Arabs set up the first [[cane sugar mill]]s, [[Sugar refinery|refineries, factories]] and [[plantation]]s. The Arabs and [[Berber people|Berbers]] spread the cultivation of sugar throughout the [[Arab Empire]] and across much of the [[Old World]], including [[Western Europe]] after they [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquered the Iberian Peninsula]] in the eighth century AD.<ref name=Hassan>
{{cite book
|authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan
|first=Ahmad Y
|last=Hassan
|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm
|title=Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III: Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam
}}</ref>
Ponting traces the spread of the cultivation of sugarcane from its introduction into [[Mesopotamia]], then the [[Levant]] and the islands of the eastern Mediterranean, especially [[Cyprus]], by the 10th century.<ref name="Ponting 2000 353">{{cite book
|last= Ponting
|first= Clive
|authorlink= Clive Ponting
|title= World history: a new perspective
|origyear= 2000
|year= 2000
|publisher= Chatto & Windus
|location= London
|isbn= 0-701-16834-X
|page= 353
}}</ref>
He also notes that it spread along the coast of East Africa to reach [[Zanzibar]].<ref name="Ponting 2000 353"/>

[[Crusades|Crusaders]] brought sugar home with them to Europe after their campaigns in the [[Holy Land]], where they encountered caravans carrying "sweet salt". Early in the 12th century, Venice acquired some villages near Tyre and set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe, where it supplemented honey as the only other available sweetener.<ref name="Ponting 2000 481">{{cite book
|last= Ponting
|first= Clive
|authorlink= Clive Ponting
|title= World history: a new perspective
|origyear= 2000
|year= 2000
|publisher= Chatto & Windus
|location= London
|isbn= 0-701-16834-X
|page= 481
}}</ref>
Crusade chronicler [[William of Tyre]], writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "very necessary for the use and health of mankind".<ref>{{cite book |last1= Barber|first1=Malcolm|edition=2nd |title=The two cities: medieval Europe, 1050-1320 |year= 2004|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 9780415174152|page=14 |url= http://books.google.com/?id=7Kkm7cgT_xkC&pg=PA14&dq=%22very+necessary+for+the+use+and+health+of+mankind%22&q=%22very%20necessary%20for%20the%20use%20and%20health%20of%20mankind%22}}</ref>

In August 1492 [[Christopher Columbus]] stopped at [[La Gomera]] in the [[Canary Islands]], for wine and water, intending to stay only four days. He became romantically involved with the Governor of the island, [[Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio]], and stayed a month. When he finally sailed she gave him cuttings of sugarcane, which became the first to reach the New World.

More recently it is manufactured in very large quantities in many countries, largely from [[sugar cane]] and [[sugar beet]]. In processed foods it has increasingly been supplanted by [[corn syrup]].

==Etymology==
[[File:Myrmicaria brunnea.jpg|thumb|[[Ant]] feeding on sugar crystals]]
The [[etymology]] reflects the spread of the commodity. The [[English language|English]] word "sugar"<ref>The -g- is unexplained, possibly reflecting a [[Venetian language|Venetian]] dialect.</ref> originates from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''سكر'' ''sukkar'',<ref>Compare the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] and the [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=sugar ''Online Etymology Dictionary''].</ref>
itself derived from [[Sanskrit]] ''शर्करा'' ''sharkara''.<ref name=Hassan>
[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2072.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III: Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries], ''History of Science and Technology in Islam''.</ref> It most probably came to England by way of Italian merchants. The contemporary Italian word is ''zucchero'', whereas the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] words, ''azúcar'' and ''açúcar'' respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is ''zuchre'' - contemporary French ''sucre''. The earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρη [sákχari].<ref>This form is not phonetically explained, but may reflect a mediation through a language ''en route'' from the Sanskrit original. Modern Greek ζάχαρη [sáχari] is due to cluster simplification [kχ] > [χ] and initial [[sandhi]] (acc. την σάχαρη [tin sáχari] > τη ζάχαρη [ti záχari]). The word has also changed its nominal class.</ref> A satisfactory ''pedigree'' explaining the spread of the word has yet to be done. Note that the English word ''jaggery'' (meaning "coarse brown Indian sugar") has similar ultimate etymological origins (presumably in [[Sanskrit]]).

==Terminology==
===Popular===
The term ''sugar'' usually refers to [[sucrose]], which is also called "table sugar" or "saccharose." Sucrose is a white [[crystal]]line [[disaccharide]]. It is often obtained from sugar cane or sugar beet.<ref>"[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sugar Sugar]" in ''Dictionary.com Unabridged''.</ref>  Sucrose is the most popular of the various sugars for [[flavor]]ing, as well as properties (such as [[mouthfeel]], preservation, and texture) of [[beverage]]s and food.

===Chemical===
"Sugar" can also be used to refer to water-soluble crystalline carbohydrates with varying sweetness.  Sugars include [[monosaccharide]]s (e.g., [[glucose]], [[fructose]], [[galactose]]), disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, [[lactose]], [[maltose]]), [[trisaccharide]]s, and [[oligosaccharide]]s,<ref>"[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sugar Sugar]." ''Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary''.  2010.</ref> in contrast to complex carbohydrates such as [[polysaccharide]]s.  [[Corn syrup]], [[dextrose]], [[crystalline fructose]], and [[maltose]], for example, are used in manufacturing and preparing food.

===Baking weight/mass volume relationship===
[[Image:Raw sugar closeup.jpg|thumb|Grainier, raw sugar.]]
Different culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture.

The Domino Sugar Company has established the following volume to weight conversions:
*Brown sugar 1&nbsp;cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 195 g = 6.88&nbsp;oz
*Granular sugar 1&nbsp;cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 200 g = 7.06&nbsp;oz
*Powdered sugar 1&nbsp;cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 120 g = 4.23&nbsp;oz

Bulk density<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.powderandbulk.com/resources/bulk_density/material_bulk_density_chart_s.htm|title="Engineering Resources - Bulk Density Chart," ''Powder and Bulk''}}</ref>
*Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL
*Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL
*Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL
*Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL

===Purity standards===
The [[International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis]] sets standards for the measurement of the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity in the refined sugar.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Deulgaonkar |first=Atul |date=March 12–25, 2005|title= A case for reform |journal=Frontline|publisher= |volume=22|issue=8|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2208/stories/20050422000804500.htm}}</ref>

==Chemistry==<!-- The article [[Smoking (cooking)]] links to this section -->
[[Image:Saccharose.svg|frame|Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right), important molecules in the body.]]
{{Main|Carbohydrate}}
Scientifically, ''sugar'' loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as [[monosaccharide]]s, [[disaccharide]]s, or [[oligosaccharides]]. Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars," the most important being [[glucose]]. Almost all sugars have the formula {{chem|C|n|H|2n|O|n}} (n is between 3 and 7). [[Glucose]] has the [[molecular formula]] {{chem|C|6|H|12|O|6}}. The names of typical sugars end with "-ose," as in "glucose", "dextrose", and "fructose". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of [[carbohydrates]] soluble in [[water]]. The [[Open-chain compound|acyclic]] mono- and disaccharides contain either [[aldehyde]] groups or [[ketone]] groups. These [[carbonyl|carbon-oxygen]] double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by [[glycosidic bond]]s with the resultant loss of a molecule of water (H<sub>2</sub>O) per bond.

Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as starch). [[Enzymes]] must [[hydrolysis|hydrolyse]] or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become [[metabolism|metabolised]]. After digestion and absorption. the principal monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Many pentoses and hexoses can form [[ring structure]]s. In these closed-chain forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains unfree, so many of the reactions typical of these groups cannot occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at [[chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]], with less than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain form.

===Natural polymers of sugars===
[[Biopolymer]]s of sugars are common in nature. Through [[photosynthesis]] plants produce [[glucose]], which has the formula {{chem|C|6|H|12|O|6}}, and convert it for storage as an energy reserve in the form of other carbohydrates such as [[starch]], or (as in cane and beet) as [[sucrose]] (table sugar). Sucrose has the chemical formula {{chem|C|12|H|22|O|11}}. Starch, consisting of two different polymers of glucose, is a readily degradable chemical [[potential energy|energy]] stored by [[cell (biology)|cells]], convertible to other types of energy.

Cellulose is a polymer of glucose used by plants as structural component.

DNA and RNA are built up of the sugars ribose and deoxyribose.
The sugar in DNA, [[deoxyribose]], has the formula C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>4</sub>.

{{anchor|History}}

==See also==
{{colbegin|3}}
*[[Barley sugar]]
*[[Biobutanol]]
*[[Brown sugar]]
*[[Caramel]]
*[[Glycomics]]
*[[Holing cane]]
*[[List of unrefined sweeteners]]
*[[Saccharophilic pathogen]]
*[[Sugar alcohol]]
*[[Sugar loaf]]
*[[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean]]
*[[Sugar substitute]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book
|last =Adas
|first =Michael
|title = Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History
|publisher =Temple University Press
|month =January|year =2001
|isbn = 1566398320
|oclc =44493265}}
*{{Cite book
|last =James
|first =Glyn
|title = Sugarcane
|publisher =Blackwell Publishing
|year =2004
|isbn =063205476X
|oclc =51837990 84251137}}
*A C Hannah, ''The International Sugar Trade'', Cambridge: Woodhead, 1996. ISBN 1-85573-069-3

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sugars}}
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*[http://www.foodsubs.com/Sweeten.html Cook's Thesaurus: Sugar]
*{{dmoz|/Recreation/Collecting/Food_and_Drink_Related/Sugar/|Sugar}}

[[Category:Carbohydrates]]
[[Category:Excipients]]
[[Category:Granular materials]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Sugar]]

[[af:Suikers]]
[[ar:سكر]]
[[an:Zucre]]
[[as:চেনী]]
[[gn:Eiratã]]
[[bn:চিনি]]
[[zh-min-nan:Thn̂g]]
[[be:Цукар]]
[[be-x-old:Цукар]]
[[bs:Šećer]]
[[bg:Захар]]
[[ca:Sucre]]
[[cv:Сахăр]]
[[cy:Siwgr]]
[[da:Sukker]]
[[de:Zucker]]
[[nv:Ashįįh łikan]]
[[el:Ζάχαρη]]
[[es:Azúcar]]
[[eo:Sukero]]
[[eu:Azukre]]
[[fa:شکر]]
[[fr:Sucre]]
[[fy:Sûker]]
[[gd:Siùcar]]
[[gl:Azucre]]
[[ko:설탕]]
[[hi:शर्करा]]
[[hr:Šećeri]]
[[io:Sukro]]
[[id:Gula]]
[[ia:Sucro]]
[[iu:ᓱᑲᒃ/sukak]]
[[is:Matarsykur]]
[[it:Zucchero]]
[[he:סוכר]]
[[jv:Gula]]
[[kn:ಸಕ್ಕರೆ]]
[[ka:შაქარი]]
[[sw:Sukari]]
[[la:Saccharon]]
[[lv:Cukurs]]
[[lt:Cukrus]]
[[jbo:sakta]]
[[hu:Cukor]]
[[mk:Шеќер]]
[[ml:പഞ്ചസാര]]
[[arz:سكر]]
[[ms:Gula]]
[[mn:Элсэн чихэр]]
[[nl:Tafelsuiker]]
[[cr:Kashiuasht]]
[[ja:砂糖]]
[[ce:Шекар]]
[[no:Sukker]]
[[nn:Sukker]]
[[nrm:Chucre]]
[[oc:Sucre]]
[[pnb:شکر]]
[[pl:Cukier spożywczy]]
[[pt:Açúcar]]
[[ro:Zahăr]]
[[qu:Asukar]]
[[ru:Сахар]]
[[sq:Sheqeri]]
[[scn:Zùccaru]]
[[simple:Sugar]]
[[sk:Sacharid]]
[[sl:Sladkor]]
[[sh:Šećer]]
[[sr:Шећер]]
[[su:Gula]]
[[fi:Sokeri]]
[[sv:Socker]]
[[tl:Asukal]]
[[ta:சீனி]]
[[te:చక్కెర]]
[[th:น้ำตาล]]
[[tr:Kristal şeker]]
[[uk:Цукор]]
[[ug:شېكەر]]
[[vec:Sùcaro]]
[[vi:Đường (chất)]]
[[wa:Souke]]
[[war:Asukar]]
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[[bat-smg:Sokros]]
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[[Category:2Fix]]