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For other uses, see Asbestos (disambiguation).
File:Asbestos with muscovite.jpg
Fibrous asbestos on muscovite
File:Asbestos2USGOV.jpg
Asbestos
File:Asbestos3USGOV.jpg
Asbestos
File:Blue asbestos.jpg
Blue asbestos (crocidolite) from Wittenoom, Western Australia. The ruler is 1 cm.
File:Blue asbestos (teased).jpg
Blue asbestos showing the fibrous nature of the mineral

Asbestos (from Greek ἄσβεστος meaning "unquenchable" or "inextinguishable") is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals exploited commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their asbestiform habit, long, (1:20) thin fibrous crystals. The inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious illnesses, including malignant lung cancer, mesothelioma (a formerly rare cancer strongly associated with exposure to asbestos and fiber glass.), and asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis). Long term exposure to asbestos is more likely to cause health problems, as asbestos exists in the ambient air at low levels, which itself does not cause health problems.[1] The European Union has banned all use of asbestos[2] and extraction, manufacture and processing of asbestos products.[3]

Asbestos became increasingly popular among manufacturers and builders in the late 19th century because of its sound absorption, average tensile strength, and its resistance to heat, electrical and chemical damage. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat, the fibers are often mixed with cement or woven into fabric or mats. Asbestos was used in some products for its heat resistance, and in the past was used on electric oven and hotplate wiring for its electrical insulation at elevated temperature, and in buildings for its flame-retardant and insulating properties, tensile strength, flexibility, and resistance to chemicals.

Types and associated fibers

File:Asbestos1USGOV.jpg
Chrysotile asbestos
File:Asbestos fibres.jpg
Asbestos fibers

Six minerals are defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as "asbestos" including that belonging to the serpentine class chrysotile and that belonging to the amphibole class amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite. There is an important distinction to be made between serpentine and amphibole asbestos due to differences in their chemical composition and their degree of potency as a health hazard when inhaled. However asbestos and all commercial forms of asbestos (including chrysotile asbestos) are known to be human carcinogens based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. [1][4]

Serpentine

White

Chrysotile, CAS No. 12001-29-5, is obtained from serpentinite rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4. Chrysotile fibers are curly as opposed to fibers from amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, actinolite, and anthophyllite which are needlelike.[5] Chrysotile, along with other types of asbestos, has been banned in dozens of countries and is only allowed in the United States and Europe in very limited circumstances. Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America.[6] Applications where chrysotile might be used include the use of joint compound. It is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos; it can be spun and woven into fabric. The most common use is within corrugated asbestos cement roof sheets typically used for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It is also found as flat sheets used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Numerous other items have been made containing chrysotile including brake linings, cloth behind fuses (for fire protection), pipe insulation, floor tiles, and rope seals for boilers.[citation needed]

Amphibole

Brown

Amosite, CAS No. 12172-73-5, is a trade name for the amphiboles belonging to the Cummingtonite - Grunerite solid solution series, commonly from Africa, named as an acronym from Asbestos Mines of South Africa. One formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O22(OH)2. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products and ceiling tiles.[6]

Blue

Crocidolite, CAS No. 12001-28-4 is an amphibole found primarily in southern Africa, but also in Australia. It is the fibrous form of the amphibole riebeckite. One formula given for crocidolite is Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2.

Notes: chrysotile commonly occurs as soft friable fibers. Asbestiform amphibole may also occur as soft friable fibers but some varieties such as amosite are commonly straighter. All forms of asbestos are fibrillar in that they are composed of fibers with widths less than 1 micrometer that occur in bundles and have very long lengths. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus". Amphiboles such as tremolite have a crystal structure containing strongly bonded ribbonlike silicate anion polymers that extend the length of the crystal. Serpentine (chrysotile) has a sheetlike silicate anion which is curved and which rolls up like a carpet to form the fiber.[7]

Other materials

Other regulated asbestos minerals, such as tremolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-68-6, Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2; actinolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca2(Mg, Fe)5(Si8O22)(OH)2; and anthophyllite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2; are less commonly used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulation materials and have been reported in the past to occur in a few consumer products.

Other natural and not currently regulated asbestiform minerals, such as richterite, Na(CaNa)(Mg, Fe++)5(Si8O22)(OH)2, and winchite, (CaNa)Mg4(Al, Fe3+)(Si8O22)(OH)2, may be found as a contaminant in products such as the vermiculite containing zonolite insulation manufactured by W.R. Grace and Company. These minerals are thought to be no less harmful than tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite, but since they are not regulated, they are referred to as "asbestiform" rather than asbestos although may still be related to diseases and hazardous.[citation needed]

Producing nations

File:Asbestos output2.PNG
Asbestos output in 2007

In 2006, 2.3 million tons of asbestos were mined worldwide, in 11 or 12 countries. Russia was the largest producer with about 40.2% world share followed by China (19.9%), Kazakhstan (13.0%), Canada (10.3%), and Brazil (9.9%).[8]

Uses

Historic usage

Asbestos was named by the ancient Greeks, although the naming of minerals was not very consistent at that time (the modern Greek word ἀσβεστος stands for lime, not for the material known as asbestos in English). The ancients already recognized certain hazards of the material. The Greek geographer Strabo and the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder noted that the material damaged lungs of slaves who wove it into cloth.[9] Charlemagne, the first Holy Roman Emperor, is said to have had a tablecloth made of asbestos.[10]

Wealthy Persians, who bought asbestos imported over the Hindu Kush, amazed guests by cleaning the cloth by simply exposing it to fire. According to Biruni in his book of Gems, any cloths made of asbestos (Persian: آذرشست, āzarshast or Persian: آذرشب, āzarshab) were called (Persian: شستكه) shastakeh.[11] Some of the Persians believed the fiber was fur from an animal (named samandar, Persian: سمندر) that lived in fire and died when exposed to water.[12][13]

While traveling to China, Marco Polo described observing miraculous garments that were cleaned by being placed in fires[citation needed]. These garments were likely made from asbestos[citation needed].

Some archeologists believe that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burned the bodies of their kings, in order to preserve only their ashes, and prevent their being mixed with those of wood or other combustible materials commonly used in funeral pyres.[14] Others assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for sepulchral or other lamps.[12] In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose. Although asbestos causes skin to itch upon contact, ancient literature indicates that it was prescribed for diseases of the skin, and particularly for the itch. It is possible that they used the term asbestos for soapstone, because the two terms have often been confused throughout history.[14]

Recent usage

Asbestos became more widespread during the industrial revolution; in the 1866 it was used as insulation in the U.S. and Canada. Development of the first commercial asbestos mine began in 1874 in the Appalachian foothills of Quebec.[15] By the mid 20th century uses included fire retardant coatings, concrete, bricks, pipes and fireplace cement, heat, fire, and acid resistant gaskets, pipe insulation, ceiling insulation, fireproof drywall, flooring, roofing, lawn furniture, and drywall joint compound.

Approximately 100,000 people in the United States have died, or will die, from asbestos exposure related to ship building. In the Hampton Roads area, a shipbuilding center, mesothelioma occurrence is seven times the national rate.[16] Thousands of tons of asbestos were used in World War II ships to wrap the pipes, line the boilers, and cover engine and turbine parts. There were approximately 4.3 million shipyard workers in the United States during WWII; for every thousand workers about fourteen died of mesothelioma and an unknown number died from asbestosis.[17]

Asbestos fibers were once used in automobile brake pads, shoes, and clutch discs. Since the mid-1990s, a majority of brake pads, new or replacement, have been manufactured instead with linings made of ceramic, carbon, metallic and Aramid fiber (Twaron or Kevlar—the same material used in bulletproof vests).

Kent, the first filtered cigarette on the market, used crocidolite asbestos in its "Micronite" filter from 1952 to 1956.[18]

The first documented death related to asbestos was in 1906. In the early 1900s researchers began to notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos mining towns. The first diagnosis of asbestosis was made in the UK in 1924. By the 1930s, the UK regulated ventilation and made asbestosis an excusable work related disease, about ten years sooner than the U.S.[5] The term Mesothelioma was first used in medical literature in 1931; its association with asbestos was first noted sometime in the 1940s.

The United States government and asbestos industry have been criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of dangers, and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s court documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos dangers since the 1930s and had concealed them from the public.[17] A similar situation had arisen in the 1920s with the careless handling of radium and the ensuing scandal of the Radium Girls.

In Japan, particularly after World War II, asbestos was used in the manufacture of ammonium sulfate for purposes of rice production, sprayed upon the ceilings, iron skeletons, and walls of railroad cars and buildings (during the 1960s), and used for energy efficiency reasons as well. Production of asbestos in Japan peaked in 1974 and went through ups and downs until about 1990, when production began to drop severely.[19]

In Australia, asbestos was widely used in construction and other industries between 1945 and 1980. From the 1970s there was increasing concern about the dangers of asbestos and its use was phased out. Mining ceased in 1983, The use of asbestos was phased out in 1989 and banned entirely in 2004. The dangers of asbestos are now well known in Australia and there is help and support for sufferers from asbestosis or mesothelioma.[20]

Specific products

Serpentine group

Serpentine minerals have a sheet or layered structure. Chrysotile is the only asbestos mineral in the serpentine group. In the United States, chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos. According to the U.S. EPA Asbestos Building Inspectors Manual, chrysotile accounts for approximately 95% of asbestos found in buildings in the United States. Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of products and materials, including:

  • drywall and joint compound
  • plaster
  • mud and texture coats
  • vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives
  • roofing tars, felts, siding, and shingles
  • "transite" panels, siding, countertops, and pipes
  • popcorn ceilings, also known as acoustic ceilings
  • fireproofing
  • caulk
  • gaskets
  • packing, a system for sealing a rotating shaft
  • brake pads and shoes
  • clutch plates
  • stage curtains
  • fire blankets
  • interior fire doors
  • fireproof clothing for firefighters
  • thermal pipe insulation
  • filters for removing fine particulates from chemicals, liquids, and wine
  • dental cast linings
  • HVAC flexible duct connectors
  • drilling fluid additives
File:AsbestosHeatSpreaderForCooking.jpg
A household heat spreader for cooking on gas stoves, made of asbestos (probably 1950s; "Amiante pur" is French for "Pure Asbestos")

In the European Union and Australia it has recently been banned as a potential health hazard[21] and is not used at all. Japan is moving in the same direction, but more slowly. Revelations that hundreds of workers had died in Japan over the previous few decades from diseases related to asbestos sparked a scandal in mid-2005.[22] Tokyo had, in 1971, ordered companies handling asbestos to install ventilators and check health on a regular basis; however, the Japanese government did not ban crocidolite and amosite until 1995, and a full-fledged ban on asbestos was implemented in October 2004.[22]

Amphibole group

Five types of asbestos are found in the amphibole group: amosite, crocidolite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite. Amosite, the second most likely type to be found in buildings, according to the U.S. EPA Asbestos Building Inspectors Guide, is the "brown" asbestos.

Amosite and crocidolite were formerly used in many products until the early 1980s. The use of all types of asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in much of the Western world by the mid-1980s, and by Japan in 1995. These products were mainly:

  • Low density insulation board and ceiling tiles
  • Asbestos-cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for water and electrical/telecommunication services
  • Thermal and chemical insulation (e.g., fire rated doors, limpet spray, lagging and gaskets)

Health problems

File:MesotheliomaCT.jpg
Left-sided mesothelioma : CT chest

Amosite and crocidolite are the most hazardous of the asbestos minerals because of their long persistence in the lungs of exposed people. Tremolite often contaminates chrysotile asbestos, thus creating an additional hazard. Chrysotile asbestos, like all other forms of asbestos, has produced tumors in animals. Mesotheliomas have been observed in people who were occupationally exposed to chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and residents who lived close to asbestos factories and mines.[23]

Asbestos exposure becomes a health concern when high concentrations of asbestos fibers are inhaled over a long time period.[24] People who become ill from inhaling asbestos are often those who are exposed on a day-to-day basis in a job where they worked directly with the material. As a person's exposure to fibers increases, because of being exposed to higher concentrations of fibers and/or by being exposed for a longer time, then that person's risk of disease also increases. Disease is very unlikely to result from a single, high-level exposure, or from a short period of exposure to lower levels.[24] Smoking combined with asbestos exposure may increase the health risk dramatically.[citation needed]

Other asbestos-related diseases

  • Asbestos warts: caused when the sharp fibers lodge in the skin and are overgrown causing benign callus-like growths.
  • Pleural plaques: discrete fibrous or partially calcified thickened area which can be seen on X-rays of individuals exposed to asbestos. Although pleural plaques are themselves asymptomatic, in some patients this develops into pleural thickening.
  • Diffuse pleural thickening: similar to above and can sometimes be associated with asbestosis. Usually no symptoms shown but if exposure is extensive, it can cause lung impairment.

Asbestos as a contaminant

File:Anthophyllite asbestos SEM.jpg
Asbestos fibers (SEM micrograph)

Most respirable asbestos fibers are invisible to the unaided human eye because their size is about 3.0–20.0 µm long and can be as thin as 0.01 µm. Human hair ranges in size from 17 to 181 µm in width.[25] Fibers ultimately form because when these minerals originally cooled and crystallized, they formed by the polymeric molecules lining up parallel with each other and forming oriented crystal lattices. These crystals thus have three cleavage planes, just as other minerals and gemstones have. But in their case, there are two cleavage planes that are much weaker than the third direction. When sufficient force is applied, they tend to break along their weakest directions, resulting in a linear fragmentation pattern and hence a fibrous form. This fracture process can keep occurring and one larger asbestos fiber can ultimately become the source of hundreds of much thinner and smaller fibers.

As asbestos fibers get smaller and lighter, they more easily become airborne and human respiratory exposures can result. Fibers will eventually settle but may be re-suspended by air currents or other movement.

Friability of a product containing asbestos means that it is so soft and weak in structure that it can be broken with simple finger crushing pressure. Friable materials are of the most initial concern because of their ease of damage. The forces or conditions of usage that come into intimate contact with most non-friable materials containing asbestos are substantially higher than finger pressure.

Environmental asbestos

Asbestos can be found naturally in the air outdoors and in some drinkable water, including water from natural sources.[26] Studies have shown that members of the general (non-occupationally exposed) population have tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of asbestos fibers in each gram of dry lung tissue, which translates into millions of fibers and tens of thousands of asbestos bodies in every person's lungs.[27]

Asbestos from natural geologic deposits is known as "Naturally Occurring Asbestos" (NOA). Health risks associated with exposure to NOA are not yet fully understood, and current US federal regulations do not address exposure from NOA. Many populated areas are in proximity to shallow, natural deposits which occur in 50 of 58 California counties and in 19 other U.S. states. In one study, data was collected from 3,000 mesothelioma patients in California and 890 men with prostate cancer, a malignancy not known to be related to asbestos. The study found a correlation between the incidence of mesotheliomas and the distance a patient lived from known deposits of rock likely to include asbestos; the correlation was not present when the incidence of prostate cancer was compared with the same distances. According to the study, risk of mesothelioma declined by 6 percent for every 10 kilometers that an individual had lived away from a likely asbestos source.[28]

Portions of El Dorado County, California are known to contain natural asbestos formations near the surface.[28][29] The USGS studied amphiboles in rock and soil in the area in response to an EPA sampling study and subsequent criticism of the EPA study. The study found that many amphibole particles in the area meet the counting rule criteria used by the EPA for chemical and morphological limits, but do not meet morphological requirements for commercial-grade-asbestos. The executive summary pointed out that even particles that do not meet requirements for commercial-grade-asbestos may be a health threat and suggested a collaborative research effort to assess health risks associated with "Naturally Occurring Asbestos."[30]

Large portions of Fairfax County, Virginia were also found to be underlain with tremolite. The county monitored air quality at construction sites, controlled soil taken from affected areas, and required freshly developed sites to lay 6 inches (150 mm) of clean, stable material over the ground.[28]

For environmental samples, one must normally resort to electron microscopy for positive identification.[31] Today, gravimetric and PCM/PLM techniques are employed. However, the latter techniques cannot readily identify the smallest, most hazardous, fibers, because they are limited to PM10 particulate size evaluation, which completely ignores ultrafine particles (UFPs).

History of health concerns and regulation

Before 1900

By the first century AD, Greeks and Romans had already observed, at least in passing, that slaves involved in the weaving of asbestos cloth were afflicted with a sickness of the lungs.[32]

Early concern in the modern era on the health effects of asbestos exposure can be found in several sources. Among the earliest were reports in Britain. The annual reports of the Chief Inspector of Factories reported as early as 1898 that asbestos had "easily demonstrated" health risks.[33]

At about the same time, what was probably the first study of mortality among asbestos workers was reported in France.[34] While the study describes the cause of death as chalicosis, a generalized pneumoconiosis, the circumstances of the employment of the fifty workers whose death prompted the study suggest that the root cause was asbestos or mixed asbestos-cotton dust exposure.

1900s–1910s

File:Ferruginous body.jpg
Micrograph demonstrating asbestosis of the lung (ferruginous bodies). H&E stain.

Further awareness of asbestos-related diseases can be found in the early 1900s, when London doctor H. Montague Murray conducted a post mortem exam on a young asbestos factory worker who died in 1899. Dr. Murray gave testimony on this death in connection with an industrial disease compensation hearing. The post-mortem confirmed the presence of asbestos in the lung tissue, prompting Dr. Murray to express as an expert opinion his belief that the inhalation of asbestos dust had at least contributed to, if not actually caused, the death of the worker.[35]

The record in the United States was similar. Early observations were largely anecdotal in nature and did not definitively link the occupation with the disease, followed by more compelling and larger studies that strengthened the association. One such study, published in 1918, noted:

All of these processes unquestionably involve a considerable dust hazard, but the hygienic aspects of the industry have not been reported upon. It may be said, in conclusion, that in the practice of American and Canadian life insurance companies, asbestos workers are generally declined on account of the assumed health-injurious conditions of the industry.[36]

1920s and 1930s

Widespread recognition of the occupational risks of asbestos in Britain was reported in 1924 by a Dr. Cooke, a pathologist, who introduced a case description of a 33-year-old female asbestos worker, Nellie Kershaw, with the following: "Medical men in areas where asbestos is manufactured have long suspected the dust to be the cause of chronic bronchitis and fibrosis..."[37] Dr. Cooke then went on to report on a case in 1927 involving a 33-year-old male worker who was the only survivor out of ten workers in an asbestos carding room. In the report he named the disease "asbestosis".[38]

Dr. Cooke's second case report was followed, in the late 1920s, by a large public health investigation (now known as the Merewether report after one of its two authors) that examined some 360 asbestos-textile workers (reported to be about 15% of the total comparable employment in Britain at the time) and found that about a quarter of them suffered from pulmonary fibrosis.[39] This investigation resulted in improved regulation of the manufacturing of asbestos-containing products in the early 1930s. Regulations included industrial hygiene standards, medical examinations, and inclusion of the asbestos industry into the British Workers' Compensation Act.[40]

The first known U.S. workers' compensation claim for asbestos disease was in 1927.[41] In 1930, the first reported autopsy of an asbestosis sufferer was conducted in the United states and later presented by a doctor at the Mayo Clinic, although in this case the exposure involved mining activities somewhere in South America.[42]

In 1930, the major asbestos company Johns-Manville produced a report, for internal company use only, about medical reports of asbestos worker fatalities.[43] In 1932, A letter from U.S. Bureau of Mines to asbestos manufacturer Eagle-Picher stated, in relevant part, "It is now known that asbestos dust is one of the most dangerous dusts to which man is exposed."[44] In 1933, Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. doctors found that 29% of workers in a Johns-Manville plant had asbestosis.[43] Likewise, in 1933, Johns-Manville officials settled lawsuits by 11 employees with asbestosis on the condition that the employees' lawyer agree to never again "directly or indirectly participate in the bringing of new actions against the Corporation."[44] In 1934, officials of two large asbestos companies, Johns-Manville and Raybestos-Manhattan, edited an article about the diseases of asbestos workers written by a Metropolitan Life Insurance Company doctor. The changes downplayed the danger of asbestos dust.[44] In 1935, officials of Johns-Manville and Raybestos-Manhattan instructed the editor of Asbestos magazine to publish nothing about asbestosis.[44] In 1936, a group of asbestos companies agreed to sponsor research on the health effects of asbestos dust, but required that the companies maintain complete control over the disclosure of the results.[43]

1940s

In 1942, an internal Owens-Corning corporate memo referred to "medical literature on asbestosis.... scores of publications in which the lung and skin hazards of asbestos are discussed."[43] Testimony given in a federal court in 1984 by Charles H. Roemer, formerly an employee of Unarco, described a meeting in the early 1940s between Unarco officials, J-M President Lewis H. Brown and J-M attorney Vandiver Brown. Roemer stated, "I’ll never forget, I turned to Mr. Brown, one of the Browns made this crack (that Unarco managers were a bunch of fools for notifying employees who had asbestosis), and I said, ‘Mr. Brown, do you mean to tell me you would let them work until they dropped dead?’ He said, ‘Yes. We save a lot of money that way.'" [45] In 1944, a Metropolitan Life Insurance Company report found 42 cases of asbestosis among 195 asbestos miners.[43]

1950s

In 1951, asbestos companies removed all references to cancer before allowing publication of research they sponsored.[46] In 1952, Dr. Kenneth Smith, Johns-Manville medical director, recommended (unsuccessfully) that warning labels be attached to products containing asbestos. Later, Smith testified: "It was a business decision as far as I could understand...the corporation is in business to provide jobs for people and make money for stockholders and they had to take into consideration the effects of everything they did and if the application of a caution label identifying a product as hazardous would cut into sales, there would be serious financial implications."[47] In 1953, National Gypsum's safety director wrote to the Indiana Division of Industrial Hygiene, recommending that acoustic plaster mixers wear respirators "because of the asbestos used in the product." Another company official noted that the letter was "full of dynamite" and urged that it be retrieved before reaching its destination. A memo in the files noted that the company "succeeded in stopping" the letter, which "will be modified."[48]

1960s–early 1980s

Through the 1970s, asbestos was used to fireproof roofing and flooring, for heat insulation, and for a variety of other purposes. The material was used in firecheck partitioning and doors on North Sea Oil Production Platforms and Rigs.

Modern regulation

See main article at Asbestos and the law

United States

In 1989 the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued the Asbestos Ban and Phase Out Rule which was subsequently overturned in the case of Corrosion Proof Fittings v. EPA, 947 F.2d 1201 (5th Cir. 1991). This ruling leaves many consumer products that can still legally contain trace amounts of asbestos. For a clarification of products which legally contain asbestos, read the EPA's clarification statement.[49]

The EPA has proposed a concentration limit of seven million fibers per liter of drinking water for long fibers (lengths greater than or equal to 5 µm). The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), has set limits of 100,000 fibers with lengths greater than or equal to 5 µm per cubic meter of workplace air for eight-hour shifts and 40-hour work weeks.[50]

New Zealand

In 1984, the import of raw amphibole (blue and brown) asbestos into New Zealand was banned. In 2002 the import of chrysotile (white) asbestos was banned.[51]

Australia

A complete ban on asbestos-containing material in Australia was introduced in 1991 although some building materials in storage were still being used in the years that followed. Queensland began regulation of asbestos removal and disposal in 2005. Handlers of asbestos materials must have a B-Class license for bonded asbestos and an A-Class license for friable asbestos.

The town of Wittenoom, in Western Australia was built around a (blue) asbestos mine. The town has since been closed, and is contaminated. However one couple remains there, refusing to leave the area and refusing to believe in current medical advice. Conversely, the town of Asbestos, in Quebec, which remains the world's largest open pit asbestos mine, retains a significant population, albeit one that aged as a result of the failure of Magnola, a multi-million dollar plant designed to extract magnesium from asbestos tailings.

Contamination of other products

Asbestos and vermiculite

Vermiculite is a hydrated laminar magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate which resembles mica. It can be used for many industrial applications and has been used as a replacement for asbestos. Some ore bodies of vermiculite have been found to contain small amounts of asbestos.[52] One vermiculite mine operated by W. R. Grace and Company in Libby, Montana exposed workers and community residents to danger by mining contaminated vermiculite. In 1999 the EPA began cleanup efforts and now the area is a Superfund cleanup area.[53] The EPA has determined that harmful asbestos is released from the mine as well as through other activities that disturb soil in the area.[54]

Asbestos and talc

Talc is sometimes contaminated with asbestos.[55] In 2000, tests in a certified asbestos-testing laboratory found the tremolite form of amphibole asbestos in three out of eight major brands of children's crayons (oil pastels) that are made partly from talc — Crayola, Prang, and Rose Art.[56] In Crayola crayons, the tests found asbestos levels from 0.05% in Carnation Pink to 2.86% in Orchid; in Prang crayons, the range was from 0.3% in Periwinkle to 0.54% in Yellow; in Rose Art crayons, it was from 0.03% in Brown to 1.20% in Orange. Overall, 32 different types of crayons from these brands contained more than trace amounts of asbestos, and eight others contained trace amounts. The Art and Creative Materials Institute, a trade association which tests the safety of crayons on behalf of the makers, initially insisted the test results must be incorrect, although they later said they do not test for asbestos.[56] In May 2000, Crayola said tests by a materials analyst, Richard Lee, whose testimony has been accepted in lawsuits over 250 times on behalf of the asbestos industry, showed two of its crayons were negative for asbestos.[57] In June 2000, Binney & Smith, the maker of Crayola, and the other makers agreed to stop using talc in their products, and changed their product formulations in the United States.[57] The mining company, R T Vanderbilt Co of Gouverneur, New York, which supplied the talc to the crayon makers, insists there is no asbestos in its talc "to the best of our knowledge and belief",[58] but a news article claimed that the United States Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) did find asbestos in four talc samples that it tested in 2000.[56] At the time, however, the Assistant Secretary for Mine Safety and Health informed the news reporter that his article was in error and that the reporter had misquoted him stating that “In fact, the abbreviation ND (non detect) in the laboratory report – indicates no asbestos fibers actually were found in the samples.”[59] Further supporting the claim of Vanderbilt that asbestos is not found in this industrial grade talc (composed of a very complex mineral mixture) is a decades old record of analytical work that does not find asbestos in this talc by mineral scientists in academia, government and contract laboratories.[60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68]

Human, animal and cell health studies conducted on Vanderbilt’s controversial talc also lend no support for the presence of asbestos in this talc.[69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78] Several non fully peer-reviewed health reports concerning Vanderbilt talc do exist and suggest a "same as" asbestos risk, some of which were referenced in the previously cited news articles.[79][80]

Asbestos in construction

Asbestos construction in developed countries

File:Asbestos ceiling.jpg
Older decorative ceilings, like this one, often contain small amounts of white asbestos.

The use of asbestos in new construction projects has been banned for health and safety reasons in many developed countries or regions, including the European Union, Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, and New Zealand. A notable exception is the United States, where asbestos continues to be used in construction such as cement asbestos pipes. The 5th Circuit Court prevented the EPA from banning asbestos in 1991 because although EPA research showed it would cost between $450 and 800 million and save around 200 lives in a 13 year period, the EPA did not provide adequate evidence for the safety of alternative products.[81] Until the mid-1980s, small amounts of white asbestos were used in the manufacture of Artex, a decorative stipple finish,[82] however, some of the lesser-known suppliers of Artex were still adding white asbestos until 1999.[83] Removing or disturbing Artex is not recommended, as it may contain white asbestos.

Prior to the ban, asbestos was widely used in the construction industry. Many older buildings contain asbestos. In the United States, there is a minimum standard for asbestos surveys as described by ASTM Standard E 2356-04. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency includes some but not all asbestos-contaminated facilities on the Superfund National Priorities list (NPL). Renovation and demolition of asbestos contaminated buildings is subject to EPA NESHAP and OSHA Regulations. Asbestos is not a material covered under CERCLA's innocent purchaser defense. In the UK, the removal and disposal of asbestos and of substances containing it are covered by the Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006[84]

In older buildings, asbestos may still be present in some areas e.g. old bath panels, concrete water tanks and many other places. Being aware of asbestos locations reduces the risk of disturbing asbestos. See the external links section for a guide to asbestos locations e.g. A guide to asbestos in the home (From The Wrekin Housing Trust) and see the asbestos image gallery for common asbestos locations.

Removal of asbestos building components can also remove the fire protection they provide, therefore fire protection substitutes are required for proper fire protection that the asbestos originally provided.[85][86]

Asbestos construction in developing countries

Some developing countries, such as India and China, and also Russia, have continued widespread use of asbestos. The most common is corrugated asbestos-cement sheets or "A/C Sheets" for roofing and for side walls. Millions of homes, factories, schools or sheds and shelters continue to use asbestos. Cutting these sheets to size and drilling holes to receive 'J' bolts to help secure the sheets to roof framing is done on-site. There has been no significant change in production and use of A/C Sheets in developing countries following the widespread restrictions in developed nations.

Asbestos and 9/11

Over 1000 tons of asbestos is thought to have been released into the air during the destruction of the Twin Towers in New York on 9/11.[87] Inhalation of a mixture of asbestos and other toxicants is thought to be linked to the unusually high death rate of emergency service workers from cancer since the disaster.[87] Many thousands more are now thought to be at risk of developing cancer due to this exposure with those who have died so far being only the 'tip of the iceberg'.[87] Some commentators have criticised authorities for using asbestos in the Towers' construction (see 'Other criticism' below).

Litigation

Main article: Asbestos and the law

Asbestos litigation is the longest, most expensive mass tort in U.S. history, involving more than 8,400 defendants and 730,000 claimants as of 2002 according to the RAND Corporation,[88] and at least one defendant reported claim counts in excess of 800,000 in 2006.[89]

Current trends indicate that the worldwide rate at which people are diagnosed with asbestos-related diseases will likely increase through the next decade.[90] Analysts have estimated that the total costs of asbestos litigation in the USA alone is over $250 billion.[91]

The federal legal system in the United States has dealt with numerous counts of asbestos related suits, which often included multiple plaintiffs with similar symptoms. In 1999 there were 200,000 related cases pending in the federal court system of the United States.[92] Further, it is estimated that within the next 40 years, the number of cases may increase to 700,000. These numbers help explain how there are thousands of current pending cases.

Litigation of asbestos materials has been slow. The company that often is being exposed for their negligence of working conditions and the worker or in many cases, workers who were exposed to asbestos and did not know that they were, or knew and now fear future medical problems, have current symptoms or were upset for the negligence of the company. Companies sometimes counter saying that health issues do not currently appear in their worker or workers, or sometimes are settled out of court.[93] The Research and Development (RAND) think tank has appropriated certain legal information which is readily available for proclaimed victims of natural resource accidents. This information has helped many workers, regardless of health condition, earn compensation through companies. RAND, along with the Institute for Civil Justice (ICJ) have been proponents of the organization of past cases in order to determine one aspect of fair compensation for workers.

1999 saw the introduction of the Fairness in Asbestos Compensation Act.[94] Ultimately many asbestos companies were forced to file for bankruptcy. While companies filed for bankruptcy, this limited payouts to those who were actually affected by the material. Christopher Edley said what the 1999 Act ultimately did was "limit punitive damages that seek retribution for the decisions of long-dead executives for conduct that took place decades ago (Professor Christopher Edley, Jr.).” [94]

Litigation exists outside the United States in England, Scotland, Ireland, the Netherlands, France, Australia, and Japan among other nations. See the companion article for further information.

The volume of the asbestos liability has concerned manufacturers and insurers and reinsurers.[95] The amounts and method of allocating compensation have been the source of many court cases, and government attempts at resolution of existing and future cases.

Critics of safety regulations

EU-Canada dispute

According to Natural Resources Canada, chrysotile asbestos is not as dangerous as once thought. According to their fact sheet, "...current knowledge and modern technology can successfully control the potential for health and environmental harm posed by chrysotile".[96] In May 1998, Canada requested consultations before the WTO with the European Commission concerning France's 1996 prohibition of the importation and sale of asbestos.[97]

Canada claimed that the French measures contravened provisions of the Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and on Technical Barriers to Trade, and the GATT 1994.[97]

The EC said that substitute materials had been developed in place of asbestos, which are safer to human health. It stressed that the French measures were not discriminatory, and were fully justified for public health reasons. The EC said that in the July consultations, it had tried to convince Canada that the measures were justified, and that just as Canada broke off consultations, it was in the process of submitting substantial scientific data in favour of the asbestos ban.[97]

Critics of Canada's support of the use of chrysotile asbestos argue that Canada is ignoring the risks associated with the material. The CFMEU pointed out that selling asbestos is illegal in Canada, but it is exported and most exports go to developing countries. Canada has pressured countries, including Chile, and the UN to avoid asbestos bans.[98]

Other criticism

Asbestos regulation critics include the asbestos industry[99] and Fox News "junk science" columnist Steven Milloy. Critics sometimes argue that increased government regulation does more harm than good and that replacements to asbestos are inferior. An example is the suggestion by Dixy Lee Ray and others that the shuttle Challenger exploded because the maker of O-ring putty was pressured by the EPA into ceasing production of asbestos-laden putty.[100][101] However, the putty used in Challenger's final flight did contain asbestos, and failures in the putty were not responsible for the failure of the O-ring that led to loss of the shuttle.[101][102]

Asbestos was used in the first forty floors of the World Trade Center north tower causing an airborne contamination among lower Manhattan after the towers collapsed in the attacks on September 11th, 2001.[103] Steven Milloy suggests that the World Trade Center towers could still be standing or at least would have stood longer had a 1971 ban not stopped the completion of the asbestos coating above the 64th floor.[104] This was not considered in the National Institute of Standards and Technology's report on the towers' collapse. All fireproofing materials, regardless of what they are made of, are required to obtain a fire-resistance rating prior to installation. All fiber-based lightweight commercial spray fireproofing materials are vulnerable to kinetic energy impacts that are outside of the fire testing upon which their ratings are based, including asbestos-based materials, and would have been removed in large areas by the impact of the planes.[105][106][107]

Substitutes for asbestos in construction

Fiberglass insulation was invented in 1938 and is now the most commonly used type of insulation material. The safety of this material is also being called into question, as research shows that the composition of this material (asbestos and fiberglass are both silicate fibers) causes similar toxicity as asbestos.[108]

In Europe stone- and glasswool are the main insulators in houses.

Many companies that produced asbestos-cement products that were reinforced with asbestos fibers have developed products incorporating organic fibers. One such product was known as Eternit and another "Everite" now use "Nutec" fibers which consist of organic fibers, portland cement and silica. Cement-bonded wood fiber is another substitute. Stone fibers are used in gaskets and friction materials.

Another potential fiber is polybenzimidazole or PBI fiber. Polybenzimidazole fiber is a synthetic fiber with high melting point of 760 °C that also does not ignite. Because of its exceptional thermal and chemical stability, it is often used by fire departments and space agencies.

File:AsbestosContainment.JPG
Old Wailuku Post Office sealed off for asbestos removal

Asbestos alternatives for industrial use include sleeves, rope, tape, fabric and insulation batt materials made from fiberglass and silica.

Recycling and disposal

In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as hazardous waste in landfill sites.

Asbestos can also be recycled by transforming it into harmless silicate glass. A process of thermal decomposition at 1000–1250 °C produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicate phases, and at temperatures above 1250 °C it produces silicate glass.[109] Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks.[110]

See also

Mineralogy

Other asbestos-related topics

References

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Additional reading

External links

Regulatory and government links
Mineral and mining links
Health and the environment


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  1. ↑ http://www.asbestoswatchdog.co.uk/documents/FactSheet-AnIntroductiontoAsbestosScience.pdf
  2. ↑ "Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) and establishing a European Chemicals Agency". Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved 2010-07-05. 
  3. ↑ "Directive 2003/18/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 March 2003 amending Council Directive 83/477/EEC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to asbestos at work". Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved 2010-07-05. 
  4. ↑ Berman, D Wayne; Crump, Kenny S (2003). FINAL DRAFT:TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT FOR A PROTOCOL TO ASSESS ASBESTOS-RELATED RISK. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p. 474. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "American Cancer Society". Cancer.org. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Asbestos – History and Uses". Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. August 31, 2007.  Archived December 28, 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
  7. ↑ WA Deer, RA Howie, J Zussman (1992). An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals (2nd ed.). Longman. 
  8. ↑ "World Mineral Production 2002–2006" (PDF). British Geological Survey. Retrieved 2009-01-01. 
  9. ↑ Barbalace, Roberta C. (1995-10-22). "History of Asbestos". Environmentalchemistry.com. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  10. ↑ Monday, Nov. 29, 1926 (1926-11-29). "Time Magazine". Time.com. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  11. ↑ Dehkhoda Persian Dictionary
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "University of Calgary". Iras.ucalgary.ca. 2001-09-30. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  13. ↑ A Brief History of Asbestos Use and Associated Health Risks EnvironmentalChemistry.com website
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 History of science This article incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia, a publication in the public domain.
  15. ↑ Udd, John (1998) "A Chronology of Minerals Development in Canada" National Resources Canada
  16. ↑ Burke, Bill (6 May 2001) "Shipbuilding's Deadly Legacy: Introduction: Horrible Toll Could Have Been Avoided" Virginian-Pilot Norfolk, Virginia (newspaper); from Internet Archive
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Burke, Bill (6 May 2001) "Shipyards, a Crucible for Tragedy: Part 1: How the war created a monster" Virginian-Pilot Norfolk, Virginia (newspaper)
  18. ↑ Cancer Research
  19. ↑ "Asbestos in Japan" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  20. ↑ http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/stories/2004/04/29/1828906.htm Australian Broadcasting Corporation Fact File: Asbestos
  21. ↑ "Australian prohibition on use of chrysotile asbestos". Ascc.gov.au. 2009-11-09. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Asbestos deaths just the tip of the iceberg Japan Times Online
  23. ↑ Marbbn, C.A. "Asbestos Risk Assessment", The Journal of Undergraduate Biological Studies, 2009, pg. 12-24.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "2001.09.16: (Fact Sheet) Asbestos". Hhs.gov. 2001-09-16. Archived from the original on July 14, 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  25. ↑ Ley, Brian (1999). "Diameter of a Human Hair". The Physics Factbook. 
  26. ↑ "Centre for disease control article on asbestos". Atsdr.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  27. ↑ "Medscape article on asbestos". Medscape.com. 2002-02-14. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Raloff, Janet (July 8, 2006). "Dirty Little Secret" ([dead link] – Scholar search). 
  29. ↑ "Not in Their Back Yard", Mother Jones, May/June 2007.
  30. ↑ Meeker, G.P.; Lowers, H.A.; Swayze, G.A.; Van Gosen, B.S.; Stutley, S.J.; Brownfield, I.K. (December, 2006). "Mineralogy and Morphology of Amphiboles Observed in Soils and Rocks in El Dorado Hills, California". United States Geological Survey.  Check date values in: |date= (help)
  31. ↑ http://www.lightpollution.org.uk/dwnLoads/Asbestos_JoM1976.pdf
  32. ↑ P. Brodeur, "Annals of Law, The Asbestos Industry on Trial, 1-A Failure to Warn", The New Yorker, June 10, 1985, pp 57
  33. ↑ Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, "Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops for the Year 1898", 1899, cited in Tweedale referenced below
  34. ↑ D. Auribault, "Note sur l'Hygiène et la Sécurité des Ouvriers dans les Filatures et Tissages d'Amianté (On hygiene and security of the workers in the spinning and weaving of asbestos)" in Le Bulletin de l'Inspection du Travail, 1906, pp 120–132. This summary was given by Brodeur~~~~ and roughly confirmed by Merewether & Price in the report cited below.
  35. ↑ H. M. Murray, testimony before the Departmental Committee on Compensation for Industrial Diseases "Minutes of Evidence, Appendices and Index", 1907. pg 127 cited and summarized in Merewether & Price referenced below.
  36. ↑ F. L. Hoffman, "Mortality from Respiratory Diseases in Dusty Trades", Bulletin of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Vol. 231, pp 176–180. Mr. Hoffman was a professional statistician, employed by Prudential with an international reputation on public health matters.
  37. ↑ W. E. Cooke, "Fibrosis of the Lungs Due to the Inhalation of Asbestos Dust", British Medical Journal, 1927, pg. 487.
  38. ↑ W. E. Cooke, "Pulmonary Asbestosis", British Medical Journal, 1927, pp. 1024–1025, cited in G. Peters & B. Peters, Sourcebook on Asbestos Diseases, Volume 1, 1980, pg. G1
  39. ↑ E.R.A. Merewether & C. W. Price, "Report on Effects of Asbestos Dust on the Lung" H.M. Stationery Office, 1930
  40. ↑ Geoffrey Tweedale, Magic Mineral to Killer Dust, Turner & Newall and the Asbestos Hazard, Oxford University Press, 2001, page 21. ISBN 0-19-924399-9.
  41. ↑ Broduer, pp 59–60.
  42. ↑ R. G. Mills, "Pulmonary Asbestosis: Report of a Case", Minnesota Medicine, July 1930, pp 495–499.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 43.4 Barry I. Castleman, Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects, 4th edition, Aspen Law and Business, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1996, p.195.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Paul Brodeur (1985). Outrageous Misconduct: The Asbestos Industry on Trial (1st ed.). Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-394-53320-8. 
  45. ↑ Testimony of Charles H. Roemer, Deposition taken April 25, 1984, Johns-Manville Corp., et al. v. the United States of America, U.S. Claims Court Civ. No. 465-83C, cited in Barry I. Castleman, Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects, 4th edition, Aspen Law and Business, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1996, p.581.
  46. ↑ Castleman, Asbestos, p.71.
  47. ↑ Castleman, Asbestos, p.666
  48. ↑ Castleman, Asbestos, p.669–70.
  49. ↑ EPA clarification statement on asbestos (PDF)
  50. ↑ ToxFAQs for Asbestos, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
  51. ↑ Smartt, Pamela. "Mortality, morbidity, and asbestosis in New Zealand: the hidden legacy of asbestos exposure". The New Zealand Medical Journal, 5 November 2004, Vol. 117, No. 1205.
  52. ↑ "EPA Asbestos Contamination In Vermiculite". Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  53. ↑ "Libby Asbestos - US EPA Region 8". Epa.gov. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  54. ↑ "Risk Assessment - US EPA". Epa.gov. 2008-12-22. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  55. ↑ Van Gosen, Bradley S., Lowers, Heather A., Sutley, Stephen J. "A USGS Study of Talc Deposits and Associated Amphibole Asbestos Within Mined Deposits of the Southern Death Valley Region, California". Pubs.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 "Major brands of kids' crayons contain asbestos, tests show". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. 2000-05-23. Retrieved 2007-11-21. 
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 "Crayon firms agree to stop using talc". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. 2000-06-13. Retrieved 2007-11-21. 
  58. ↑ "Old dispute rekindled over content of mine's talc". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. 2000-05-30. Retrieved 2007-11-21. 
  59. ↑ J .Davitt McAteer, Assist. Secretary for Mine Safety and Health correspondence to Andrew Schneider of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer dated June 14, 2000 – copy obtainable through records archives MSHA.
  60. ↑ Van Orden, D., R. J. Lee: Weight Percent Compositional Analysis of Seven RTV Talc Samples. Analytical Report to R. T. Vanderbilt Company, Inc. Nov. 22, 2000. Submitted to Public Comments Record - C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)". Dec. 4, 2000.
  61. ↑ Nord, G. L, S. W. Axen, R. P. Nolan: Mineralogy and Experimental Animal Studies of Tremolitic Talc. Environmental Sciences Laboratory, Brooklyn College, The City University of New York. Submitted to Public Comments Record - C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)". December 1, 2000.
  62. ↑ Kelse, J. W., C. Sheldon Thompson: The Regulatory and Mineralogical Definitions of Asbestos and Their Impact on Amphibole Dust Analysis. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 50(11) pp. 613-622 (1989).
  63. ↑ Wylie, A.G.: Report of Investigation. Analytical Report on RTV talc submitted to R. T. Vanderbilt Company, Inc. Feb. 13, 1987 (Submitted to Public Comments Record - C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)". June 2, 2000.
  64. ↑ Crane, D.: Letter to Greg Piacitelli (NIOSH) describing the analytical findings of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration regarding R. T. Vanderbilt Talc. Nov. 26, 1986 (In OSHA Docket H-33-d and In Public Comments Record - C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations - June 2, 2000).
  65. ↑ Crane, D.: Background Information Regarding the Analysis of Industrial Talcs. Letter to the Consumer Product Safety Commission from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. June 12, 2000 (Appended to CPSC Staff Report on "Asbestos in Children’s Crayons" Aug. 2000).
  66. ↑ McCrone Associates - Atlanta Lab.: Report on the Analysis of Paint CLS-5067-1 and Mineral Filler CLS-N-439-1. To Unspecified Paint Company Sept. 23, 1992. (Submitted to Public Comments Record - C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)". June 2, 2000.
  67. ↑ Langer, A. M., R. P. Nolan: Mineralogical Characterization of Vanderbilt Talc Specimens & Comparison of the 1976 Rohl Talc Report to NIOSH and Analysis Performed in 1988. In Public Comments - Nat’l Toxicology Program 10th ROC review. W. Jameson NIEHS MED EC-14, 79 Alexander Drive Research Triangle Park, NC "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)". Nov. 2000.
  68. ↑ United States Department of the Interior: Selected Silicate Minerals and Their Asbestiform Varieties by W. J. Campbell, et al (Bureau of Mines Information Circular, I. C. 8751). Washington, D.C.: Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. (1977).
  69. ↑ Stille, W. T., I. R. Tabershaw: The Mortality Experience of Upstate New York Talc Workers, J. Occ. Med. v. 24 #6 pp. 480-484. (1982).
  70. ↑ Lamm, S. H.: Absence of Lung Cancer Risk from Exposure to Tremolitic Talc - Retrospective Mortality Study, Study presented to the R. T. Vanderbilt Company, Inc. Feb. 14, 1986. (In OSHA Docket H-33-d).
  71. ↑ Lamm, S. H., M. Levine, J. Starr, J. Tirey: Analysis of Excess Lung Cancer Risk in Short-Term Employees, Am. J. of Epid. v. 127 #6 pp. 1202-1209. (1988).
  72. ↑ Boehlecke, B.: Results of Medical Surveillance Examinations Performed Every 2 Years on Workers at the Gouverneur Talc Company (1985 -2000): Submitted to Public Comments Record - C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)". (Nov. 19, 2000). (Partial in OSHA Docket H-33-d, 1988).
  73. ↑ Gamble, J.: A Nested Case Control Study of Lung Cancer Among New York Talc Workers, Int. Arch. Occup. Envir. Health 64 pp. 449-456. (1993).
  74. ↑ Honda, Y., C. Beall, E. Delzell, K. Oestenstad, I. Brill, R. Matthews: Mortality Among Workers at a Talc Mining and Milling Facility. Submitted and accepted - Am. Occup. Hyg. May 10, 2002. (In Public Comments - NTP 10th ROC C.W. Jameson NIEHS MD EC-14, 79 Alexander Drive Research Triangle Park, NC 27709).
  75. ↑ Lamm, S., J. Starr: Similarities in Lung Cancer and Respiratory Disease Morality of Vermont and New York State Talc Workers, Proceedings of the 11th International Pneumoconiosis Conference. Epidemiology - Fibers, pp. 1576-1581, Aug. 1988
  76. ↑ Smith, W. E., D. Hubert, H. Sobel, E. Marquet: Biologic Tests of Tremolite I Hamsters, Dusts and Disease, R. Lemen & J. Dement Editors, Proceedings of the Conference on Occupational Exposures to Fibrous and Particulate Dust and Their Extension into the Environment. Pathotox Pub. Park Forest S. IL. pp 335-339. (1979).
  77. ↑ Stanton, M. F., M. Layard, A. Tegeris, E. Miller, M. May. E. Morgan, A Smith: Relation of Particle Dimension to Carcinogenicity in Amphibole Asbestosis and Other Fibrous Minerals, JNCI 67, pp. 965-975. (1981).
  78. ↑ Wylie, A. G., Mossman, B. T. et al: Mineralogical Features Associated with Cytotoxic and Proliferative Effects of Fibrous Talc and Asbestos on Rodent Tracheal Epithelial and Pleural Mesothlthelial Cells" Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 147, 000-000 Article # TO978276 (1997)
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  80. ↑ Hull MJ.. Abraham JL & Case BW (2002) Mesothelioma among Workers in Asbestiform Fiber-bearing Talc Mines in New York State. Annals of Occupational Hygiene 46 (Supplement 1): 132-135.
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  82. ↑ Where can asbestos be found, Asbestos Surveying Ltd, Birmingham, UK, 02-08-2008.Accessed: 12-29-2008.
  83. ↑ http://www.artex.co.uk/
  84. ↑ Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006, Health and Safety Exceutive, London, UK, Undated.Accessed: 12-29-2008.
  85. ↑ http://www.laws.sandwell.gov.uk/ccm/navigation/environment/rubbish--waste-and-recycling/waste/hazardous-waste/asbestos-removal/;jsessionid=aPQVqe6GfR77
  86. ↑ http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/8D99555B-79BF-42A7-981D-A3B3A33A0706/0/HS_CS_asbestoshome.pdf
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 87.2 Pilkington, Ed (2009-11-11). "9/11's delayed legacy: cancer for many of the rescue workers". The Guardian. Retrieved 2010-02-10. 
  88. ↑ "RAND 2002". Rand.org. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  89. ↑ "Enpro Public Filings". Phx.corporate-ir.net. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  90. ↑ Bianchi and Bianchi, "Malignant Mesothelioma: Global Incidence and Relationship with Asbestos, Industrial Health 2007, 45. 379-387. This article identifies sources for data in 37 countries including the US. Most of these sources are inadequate to directly measure mesothelioma incidence over time, but it is clear that rates vary, and are influenced by the amount of asbestos used, how it was used, and when it was last used. See also Peto, Decarli, LaVecchia, Levi, and Negri "The European Mesothelioma Epidemic" British Journal of Cancer (1999), 79 (3/4), 666-672 which projects mesothelioma incidence in six countries in Europe (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Netherlands, and Switzerland) as modified in Pelucci, Malvezzi, LaVecchia, Levi, Decarli and Negri, "The Mesothelioma Epidemic in Western Europe: an Update" Brit. J. of Cancer (2004) 90, 1022–1024
  91. ↑ "The Economist, January 26, 2005". Economist.com. 2005-01-26. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  92. ↑ United States. Cong. Hearing: Asbestos Litigation. 107th Cong., 2nd sess. HRG.107-993. Washington: GPO, 2002.
  93. ↑ Carroll, Stephen J., Deborah Hensler, Allan Abrahamse, Jennifer Gross, Michelle White, Scott Ashwood, and Elizabeth Sloss. Asbestos Litigation Costs and Compensation. Santa Monica,CA: RAND, 2002.
  94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 United States. Cong. Senate. Finding Solutions to the Asbestos Litigation Problem: the Fairness in Asbestos Compensation Act of 1999. 106nd Cong., 1st sess. S.758. Washington: GPO, 1999.
  95. ↑ American Academy of Acturaries' Mass Torts Subcomittee, "Overview of Asbestos Claims Issues and Trends, August 2007 pp 7 - 8
  96. ↑ "Chrysolite Asbsetos Fact Sheet" (PDF). Nrcan.gc.ca. 2009-02-03. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 97.2 EC measures affecting asbestos products World Trade Organization
  98. ↑ Stop Canada's Export Of Asbestos CFMEU
  99. ↑ Multinational Monitor article on Corporate junk science, retrieved December 16th, 2006
  100. ↑ Lehr, Jay H., editor (1992). Rational Readings on Environmental Concerns. Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 0-442-01146-6. 
  101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 "Asbestos and Challenger Disaster". Info-pollution.com. 1986-02-09. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 
  102. ↑ MSNBC article on myths of the Challenger disaster, retrieved December 16th, 2006
  103. ↑ The Junkman's Answer to Terrorism: Use More Asbestos, retrieved July 16th, 2007
  104. ↑ Fox News - Asbestos Fireproofing Might Have Prevented World Trade Center Collapse, retrieved July 27th, 2007
  105. ↑ Asbestos and the WTC collapse, retrieved December 16th, 2006
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  108. ↑ "Fiber Glass: A Carcinogen That's Everywhere". Rachel's News. Environmental Research Foundation. 1995-05-31. Retrieved 2008-10-30. 
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