Difference between revisions of "Depleted uranium"

Latest revision as of 09:13, 20 September 2010

Depleted uranium (DU) is uranium primarily composed of the isotope uranium-238 (U-238). Natural uranium is about 99.27 percent U-238, 0.72 percent U-235, and 0.0055 percent U-234. U-235 is used for fission in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Uranium is enriched in U-235 by separating the isotopes by mass. The byproduct of enrichment, called depleted uranium or DU, contains less than one third as much U-235 and U-234 as natural uranium. The external radiation dose from DU is about 60 percent of that from the same mass of natural uranium.^[2] DU is also found in reprocessed spent nuclear reactor fuel, but that kind can be distinguished from DU produced as a byproduct of uranium enrichment by the presence of U-236.^[3] In the past, DU has been called Q-metal, depletalloy, and D-38.

DU is useful because of its very high density of 19.1 g/cm³. Civilian uses include counterweights in aircraft, radiation shielding in medical radiation therapy and industrial radiography equipment, and containers used to transport radioactive materials. Military uses include defensive armor plating and armor-piercing projectiles.

The use of DU in munitions is controversial because of questions about potential long-term health effects.^[4][5] Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and numerous other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because in addition to being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic metal.^[6] It is weakly radioactive and remains so because of its long physical half-life (4.468 billion years for uranium-238), but has a considerably shorter biological half-life. The aerosol produced during impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites or can be inhaled by civilians and military personnel.^[7] During a three week period of conflict in 2003 in Iraq, 1,000 to 2,000 tonnes of DU munitions were used, mostly in cities.^[8]

The actual acute and chronic toxicity of DU is also a point of medical controversy. Multiple studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents suggest the possibility of leukemogenic, genetic, reproductive, and neurological effects from chronic exposure.^[4] A 2005 epidemiology review concluded: "In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU."^[9] The World Health Organization states that no consistent risk of reproductive, developmental, or carcinogenic effects have been reported in humans.^[10][11] However, the objectivity of this report has been called into question.^[12]

History

Enriched uranium was first manufactured in the 1940s when the US, UK, France and USSR began their nuclear weapons and nuclear power programs. It was at this time that depleted uranium was first stored as an unusable waste product (uranium hexafluoride). There was some hope that the enrichment process would be improved and fissionable isotopes of U-235 could, at some future date, be extracted from the depleted uranium. This re-enrichment recovery of the residual uranium-235 contained in the depleted uranium is no longer a matter of the future: it has been practiced for several years.^[13] Also, it is possible to design civilian power reactors with unenriched fuel, but only about 10 percent of reactors ever built utilize that technology, and both nuclear weapons production and naval reactors require the concentrated isotope.

In the 1970s, the Pentagon reported that the Soviet military had developed armor plating for Warsaw Pact tanks that NATO ammunition could not penetrate. The Pentagon began searching for material to make denser bullets. After testing various metals, ordnance researchers settled on depleted uranium.

The US and NATO military used DU penetrator rounds in the 1991 Gulf War, the Bosnia war,^[14] bombing of Serbia, and the 2003 invasion of Iraq.^[15]

While clearing a decades-old Hawaii firing range in 2005, workers found depleted uranium training rounds from the formerly classified Davy Crockett tactical battlefield nuclear delivery system from the 1960-70s.^[16] These training rounds had been forgotten because they were used in a highly classified program and had been fired before DU had become an item of interest, more than 20 years before the Gulf War.

Production and availability

Natural uranium metal contains about 0.71 percent U-235, 99.28 percent U-238, and about 0.0054 percent U-234. In order to produce enriched uranium, the process of isotope separation removes a substantial portion of the U-235 for use in nuclear power, weapons, or other uses. The remainder, depleted uranium, contains only 0.2 percent to 0.4 percent U-235. Because natural uranium begins with such a low percentage of U-235, enrichment produces large quantities of depleted uranium. For example, producing 1 kg of five percent enriched uranium requires 11.8 kg of natural uranium, and leaves about 10.8 kg of depleted uranium with only 0.3 percent U-235 remaining.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) defines depleted uranium as uranium with a percentage of the ²³⁵U isotope that is less than 0.711 percent by weight (See 10 CFR 40.4.) The military specifications designate that the DU used by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) contain less than 0.3 percent ²³⁵U (AEPI, 1995). In actuality, DoD uses only DU that contains approximately 0.2 percent ²³⁵U (AEPI, 1995).

Uranium hexafluoride

About 95 percent of the depleted uranium produced is stored as uranium hexafluoride, a crystalline solid, (D)UF₆, in steel cylinders in open air storage yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder holds up to 12.7 tonnes (or 14 short tons) of UF₆. In the U.S. 560,000 tonnes of depleted UF₆ had accumulated by 1993. In 2008, 686,500 tonnes in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near Portsmouth, Ohio and Paducah, Kentucky.^[17][18]

The storage of DUF₆ presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF₆ is exposed to water vapor in the air, it reacts with the moisture to produce UO₂F₂ (uranyl fluoride), a solid, and HF (hydrogen fluoride), a gas, both of which are highly soluble and toxic. The uranyl fluoride solid acts to plug the leak, limiting further escape of depleted UF₆. Release of the hydrogen fluoride gas to the atmosphere is also slowed by the plug formation.^[19] Storage cylinders must be regularly inspected for signs of corrosion and leaks and are repainted and repaired as necessary. The estimated life time of the steel cylinders is measured in decades.^[20]

A ten-fold jump in uranium prices has transformed approximately one-third of the U.S. depleted uranium inventory into an asset worth $7.6 billion, assuming DOE re-enriches the tails. This estimate is based on February 2008 market price for uranium and enrichment services, and DOE's access to sufficient uranium enrichment capacity.^[21]

There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States, including one in which 31 workers were exposed to a cloud of UF₆ and its reaction products and a man died after inhaling some of the resulting gas^{[citation needed]}. Though some of the more highly exposed workers showed evidence of short-term kidney damage (e.g., protein in the urine), none of these workers had lasting kidney toxicity from the uranium exposure.^[22] The U.S. government has been converting DUF₆ to solid uranium oxides for use or disposal.^[23] Such disposal of the entire DUF₆ inventory could cost anywhere from $15 million to $450 million.^[24]

World depleted uranium inventory

Country	Organization	Estimated DU stocks (tonnes)	Reported
United States	DOE	480,000	2002
Russia	FAEA	460,000	1996
France	Areva NC	190,000	2001
United Kingdom	BNFL	30,000	2001
Germany  Netherlands  United Kingdom	URENCO	16,000	1999
Japan	JNFL	10,000	2001
China	CNNC	2,000	2000
23x15px South Korea	KAERI	200	2002
23x15px South Africa	NECSA	73	2001
TOTAL		1,188,273	2002

Source: WISE Uranium Project

Military applications

Depleted uranium is very dense; at 19050 kg/m³, it is 1.67 times as dense as lead, only slightly less dense than tungsten and gold, and 84% as dense as osmium or iridium, which are the densest known substances under standard (i.e., Earth-surface) pressures. Thus a given mass of it has a smaller diameter than an equivalent lead projectile, with less aerodynamic drag and deeper penetration due to a higher pressure at point of impact. DU projectile ordnance is often incendiary because of its pyrophoric property.^[25]

Armor plate

Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armor, sandwiched between sheets of steel armor plate. For instance, some late-production M1A1HA and M1A2 Abrams tanks built after 1998 have DU reinforcement as part of the armor plating in the front of the hull and the front of the turret, and there is a program to upgrade the rest (see Chobham armor).

Nuclear weapons

Depleted uranium is used as a tamper in fission bombs and as a nuclear explosive in hydrogen bombs. It is a potential containment material for a nuclear shaped charge due to its opacity to X-rays.

Ammunition

Most military use of depleted uranium has been as 30 mm caliber ordnance, primarily the 30 mm PGU-14/B armour-piercing incendiary round from the GAU-8 Avenger cannon of the A-10 Thunderbolt II used by the United States Air Force. 25 mm DU rounds have been used in the M242 gun mounted on the U.S. Army's Bradley Fighting Vehicle and LAV-25.

The United States Marine Corps uses DU in the 25 mm PGU-20 round fired by the GAU-12 Equalizer cannon of the AV-8B Harrier, and also in the 20 mm M197 gun mounted on AH-1 Cobra helicopter gunships. The United States Navy's Phalanx CIWS's M61 Vulcan Gatling gun used 20 mm armor-piercing penetrator rounds with discarding plastic sabots which were made using depleted uranium, later changed to tungsten.

Another use of depleted uranium is in kinetic energy penetrators anti-armor rounds, such as the 120 mm sabot rounds fired from the M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams.^[26] Kinetic energy penetrator rounds consist of a long, relatively thin penetrator surrounded by discarding sabot. Two materials lend themselves to penetrator construction: tungsten and depleted uranium, the latter in designated alloys known as staballoys. Staballoys are metal alloys of depleted uranium with a very small proportion of other metals, usually titanium or molybdenum. One formulation has a composition of 99.25 percent by mass of depleted uranium and 0.75 percent by mass of titanium. Staballoys are approximately 1.67 times as dense as lead and are designed for use in kinetic energy penetrator armor-piercing ammunition. The US Army uses DU in an alloy with around 3.5 percent titanium.

Staballoys, along with lower raw material costs, have the advantage of being easy to melt and cast into shape; a difficult and expensive process for tungsten. According to recent research,^[27] at least some of the most promising tungsten alloys that have been considered as replacement for depleted uranium in penetrator ammunitions, such as tungsten-cobalt or tungsten-nickel-cobalt alloys, also possess extreme carcinogenic properties, which by far exceed those (confirmed or suspected) of depleted uranium itself: 100 percent of rats implanted with a pellet of such alloys developed lethal rhabdomyosarcoma within a few weeks. On more properly military grounds, depleted uranium is favored for the penetrator because it is self-sharpening and pyrophoric.^[25]

On impact with a hard target, such as an armored vehicle, the nose of the rod fractures in such a way that it remains sharp. The impact and subsequent release of heat energy causes it to disintegrate to dust and burn when it reaches air because of its pyrophoric properties.^[25] When a DU penetrator reaches the interior of an armored vehicle, it catches fire, often igniting ammunition and fuel, killing the crew, and possibly causing the vehicle to explode. DU is used by the U.S. Army in 120 mm or 105 mm cannons employed on the M1 Abrams and M60A3 tanks. The Russian military has used DU ammunition in tank main gun ammunition since the late 1970s, mostly for the 115 mm guns in the T-62 tank and the 125 mm guns in the T-64, T-72, T-80, and T-90 tanks.

The DU content in various ammunition is 180 g in 20 mm projectiles, 200 g in 25 mm ones, 280 g in 30 mm, 3.5 kg in 105 mm, and 4.5 kg in 120 mm penetrators. DU was used during the mid-1990s in the U.S. to make grenades, cluster bombs, and mines, but those applications have been discontinued, according to Alliant Techsystems. The US Navy used DU in its 20 mm Phalanx CIWS guns, but switched in the late 1990s to armor-piercing tungsten.

It is thought that between 17 and 20 countries have weapons incorporating depleted uranium in their arsenals. They include the U.S., the UK, France, Russia, China, India, Turkey, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, Pakistan, Thailand, Iraq and Taiwan.^{[citation needed]} DU ammunition is manufactured in 18 countries. Only the US and the UK have acknowledged using DU weapons.^[28]

In a three week period of conflict in Iraq during 2003 it was estimated over 1000 tons of depleted uranium munitions were used.^[8]

The Iranian Government TV news channel Press TV claimed on January 4, 2009, that evidence of depleted uranium exposure has been found in wounds of casualties of the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict.^[29]

In the United States, ammunition made with depleted uranium is banned for civilian use.^[30]

Legal status in weapons

In 1996 the International Court of Justice (ICJ) gave an advisory opinion on the "legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons".^[31] This made it clear, in paragraphs 54, 55 and 56, that international law on poisonous weapons—the Second Hague Declaration of 29 July 1899, Hague Convention IV of 18 October 1907 and the Geneva Protocol of 17 June 1925—did not cover nuclear weapons, because their prime or exclusive use was not to poison or asphyxiate. This ICJ opinion was about nuclear weapons, but the sentence "The terms have been understood, in the practice of States, in their ordinary sense as covering weapons whose prime, or even exclusive, effect is to poison or asphyxiate," also removes depleted uranium weaponry from coverage by the same treaties as their primary use is not to poison or asphyxiate, but to destroy materiel and kill soldiers through kinetic energy.

The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities of the United Nations Human Rights Commission,^[32] passed two motions^[33] — the first in 1996^[34] and the second in 1997.^[35] They listed weapons of mass destruction, or weapons with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and urged all states to curb the production and the spread of such weapons. Included in the list was weaponry containing depleted uranium. The committee authorized a working paper, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, of the weapons.

The requested UN working paper was delivered in 2002^[36] by Y.K.J. Yeung Sik Yuen in accordance with Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights resolution 2001/36. He argues that the use of DU in weapons, along with the other weapons listed by the Sub‑Commission, may breach one or more of the following treaties: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Charter of the United Nations, the Genocide Convention, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, the Geneva Conventions including Protocol I, the Convention on Conventional Weapons of 1980, and the Chemical Weapons Convention. Yeung Sik Yuen writes in Paragraph 133 under the title "Legal compliance of weapons containing DU as a new weapon":

Annex II to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material 1980 (which became operative on 8 February 1997) classifies DU as a category II nuclear material. Storage and transport rules are set down for that category which indicates that DU is considered sufficiently "hot" and dangerous to warrant these protections. But since weapons containing DU are relatively new weapons no treaty exists yet to regulate, limit or prohibit its use. The legality or illegality of DU weapons must therefore be tested by recourse to the general rules governing the use of weapons under humanitarian and human rights law which have already been analysed in Part I of this paper, and more particularly at paragraph 35 which states that parties to Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 have an obligation to ascertain that new weapons do not violate the laws and customs of war or any other international law. As mentioned, the International Court of Justice considers this rule binding customary humanitarian law.

In 2001, Carla Del Ponte, then the chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, said that NATO's use of depleted uranium in former Yugoslavia could be investigated as a possible war crime.^[37] Louise Arbour, Del Ponte's predecessor as chief prosecutor, had created a small, internal committee, made up of staff lawyers, to assess the allegation. Their findings, that were accepted and endorsed by Del Ponte,^[38] concluded that:

There is no specific treaty ban on the use of DU projectiles. There is a developing scientific debate and concern expressed regarding the impact of the use of such projectiles and it is possible that, in future, there will be a consensus view in international legal circles that use of such projectiles violate general principles of the law applicable to use of weapons in armed conflict. No such consensus exists at present.^[39]

Requests for a moratorium on military use

Some states and the International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons, a coalition of more than 120 non-governmental organizations, have asked for a ban on the production and military use of depleted uranium weapons.^[40]

The European Parliament has repeatedly passed resolutions requesting an immediate moratorium on the further use of depleted uranium ammunition,^[41][42] but France and Britain – the only EU states that are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council – have consistently rejected calls for a ban,^[43] maintaining that its use continues to be legal, and that the health risks are entirely unsubstantiated.^[44]

In 2007 France, Britain, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic voted against a United Nations General Assembly resolution to hold a debate in 2009 about the effects of the use of armaments and ammunitions containing depleted uranium. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained.^[45] The ambassador from the Netherlands explained his negative vote as being due to the reference in the preamble to the resolution "to potential harmful effects of the use of depleted uranium munitions on human health and the environment [which] cannot, in our view, be supported by conclusive scientific studies conducted by relevant international organizations."^[46] None of the other permanent members of the United Nations Security Council supported the resolution as China was absent for the vote, Russia abstained and United States voted against the resolution.^[45]

In September 2008, and in response to the 2007 General Assembly resolution, the UN Secretary General published the views of 15 states alongside those of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and World Health Organization (WHO). The IAEA and WHO evidence differed little from previous statements on the issue.^[47] The report was largely split between states concerned about depleted uranium's use such as Finland, Cuba, Japan, Serbia, Argentina and predominantly NATO members who do not consider the use of depleted uranium munitions problematic.^[47]

In December 2008, 141 states supported a resolution requesting that three UN agencies: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), WHO and IAEA update their research on the impact of uranium munitions by late 2010 - to coincide with the General Assembly's 65th Session, four voted against, 34 abstained and 13 were absent^[48] As before Britain and France voted against the resolution. All other European Union nations voted in favour or abstained: the Netherlands, which voted against a resolution in 2007, voted in favour, as did Finland and Norway, both of which had abstained in 2007, while the Czech Republic, which voted against the resolution in 2007, abstained. The two other states that voted against the resolution were Israel and the United States (both of which voted against in 2007), while as before China was absent for the vote, and Russia abstained.^[48]

On June 21, 2009, Belgium became the first country in the world to ban: "inert ammunition and armour that contains depleted uranium or any other industrially manufactured uranium."^[49] The move followed a unanimous parliamentary vote on the issue on 22 March 2007. The text of the 2007 law allowed for two years to pass until it came into force.^[50] In April 2009, the Belgian Senate voted unanimously to restrict investments by Belgian banks into the manufacturers of depleted uranium weapons.^[51]

In September 2009, the Latin American Parliament passed a resolution calling for a regional moratorium on the use, production and procurement of uranium weapons. It also called on the Parlatino's members to work towards an international uranium weapons treaty.^[52]

Civilian applications

Civilian applications for depleted uranium are typically unrelated to its radioactive properties. Depleted uranium has a very high density and is primarily used as shielding material for other radioactive material, and as ballast. Examples include sailboat keels, as counterweights and as shielding in industrial radiography cameras.

Shielding in industrial radiography cameras

Industrial radiography cameras include a very high activity gamma radiation source (typically Ir-192 (Activity >10 TBq)). Depleted uranium is often used in the cameras as a shield to protect individuals from the gamma source. Typically the uranium will be surrounded by polyurethane foam to protect the uranium from the elements and to protect operators and maintenance engineers from the beta radiation produced by the depleted uranium. A semi-infinite slab of depleted uranium has a contact dose rate of about 2.1 mSv per hour of which ~1.95 mSv per hour is attributable to beta radiation and the remaining 0.15 mSv per hour attributable to gamma/x-ray/bremsstrahlung radiation from the uranium, and stainless steel will be used to house the device.^[53]

Coloring in consumer products

Consumer product uses have included incorporation into dental porcelain, used for false teeth to simulate the fluorescence of natural teeth, and uranium-bearing reagents used in chemistry laboratories (e.g. uranyl acetate, used in analytical chemistry and as a stain in electron microscopy). Uranium (both depleted uranium and natural uranium) was widely used as a coloring matter for porcelain and glass in the 19th and early to mid 20th century. The practice was largely discontinued in the late 20th century. In 1999 concentrations of 10% depleted uranium were being used in "jaune no.17" a yellow enamel powder that was being produced in France by Cristallerie de Saint-Paul, a manufacturer of enamel pigments. The depleted uranium used in the powder was sold by Cogéma's Pierrelatte facility. In February, 2000, Cogema discontinued the sale of depleted uranium to producers of enamel and glass.^[54]

Trim weights in aircraft

Aircraft that contain depleted uranium trim weights (Boeing 747-100 for example) may contain between 400 to 1,500 kg of DU. This application is controversial because the DU may enter the environment if the aircraft were to crash. The metal can also oxidize to a fine powder in a fire. Its use has been phased out in many newer aircraft. Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas discontinued using DU counterweights in the 1980s. Depleted uranium was released during the Bijlmer disaster, in which 152 kg was lost, but an extensive study concluded that there was no evidence to link depleted uranium from the plane to any health problems.^[55] Counterweights manufactured with cadmium plating are considered non-hazardous while the plating is intact.^[56]

U.S. NRC general license

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations at 10 CFR 40.25 establish a general license for the use of depleted uranium contained in industrial products or devices for mass-volume applications. This general license allows anyone to possess or use depleted uranium for authorized purposes. Generally, a registration form is required, along with a commitment to not abandon the material. Agreement states may have similar, or more stringent, regulations.

Health considerations

Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and numerous other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because in addition to being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic metal.^[6] DU is less toxic than other heavy metals such as arsenic and mercury. It is weakly radioactive but remains radioactive because of its long half-life. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry states that: "to be exposed to radiation from uranium, you have to eat, drink, or breathe it, or get it on your skin."^[57]

However, the Institute of Nuclear Technology-Radiation Protection of Attiki, Greece, has noted that "the aerosol produced during impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites or can be inhaled by civilians and military personnel."^[7] In a three week period of conflict in Iraq during 2003 it was estimated over 1000 tons of depleted uranium munitions were used.^[8] The U.S. Department of Defense claims that no human cancer of any type has been seen as a result of exposure to either natural or depleted uranium.^[58]

Yet, studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents continue to suggest the possibility of leukemogenic, genetic, reproductive, and neurological effects from chronic exposure.^[4] In addition, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service in early 2004 attributed birth defect claims from a February 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning.^[59][60] Also, a 2005 epidemiology review concluded: "In aggregate the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU."^[9] WHO figures from 2004 give Iraq the world's highest incidence of Lymphoma.

Its use in incendiary ammunition is controversial because of potential adverse health effects and its release into the environment.^{[61][62][63][64][65][66]} Besides its residual radioactivity, U-238 is a heavy metal whose compounds are known from laboratory studies to be toxic to mammals.

Although slow, metallic uranium is prone to corrosion and small pieces are pyrophoric at room temperature in air.^[25] When depleted uranium munitions penetrate armor or burn, they create depleted uranium oxides in the form of dust that can be inhaled or contaminate wounds. Additionally, fragments of munitions or armor can become embedded in the body.

Chemical toxicity

The chemical toxicity of depleted uranium is about a million times greater in vivo than its radiological hazard.^[67] Health effects of DU are determined by factors such as the extent of exposure and whether it was internal or external. Three main pathways exist by which internalization of uranium may occur: inhalation, ingestion, and embedded fragments or shrapnel contamination. Properties such as phase (e.g. particulate or gaseous), oxidation state (e.g. metallic or ceramic), and the solubility of uranium and its compounds influence their absorption, distribution, translocation, elimination and the resulting toxicity. For example, metallic uranium is relatively non-toxic compared to hexavalent uranium(VI) uranyl compounds such as uranium trioxide.^[68][69]

Uranium is pyrophoric when finely divided.^[25] It will corrode under the influence of air and water producing insoluble uranium(IV) and soluble uranium (VI) salts. Soluble uranium salts are toxic. Uranium slowly accumulates in several organs, such as the liver, spleen, and kidneys. The World Health Organization has established a daily "tolerated intake" of soluble uranium salts for the general public of 0.5 µg/kg body weight, or 35 µg for a 70 kg adult.

Epidemiological studies and toxicological tests on laboratory animals point to it as being immunotoxic,^[70] teratogenic,^[71][72] neurotoxic,^[73] with carcinogenic and leukemogenic potential.^[74] A 2005 report by epidemiologists concluded: "the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in offspring of persons exposed to DU."^[9]

Early studies of depleted uranium aerosol exposure assumed that uranium combustion product particles would quickly settle out of the air^[75] and thus could not affect populations more than a few kilometers from target areas,^[76] and that such particles, if inhaled, would remain undissolved in the lung for a great length of time and thus could be detected in urine.^[77] Burning uranium droplets violently produce a gaseous vapor comprising about half of the uranium in their original mass.^[78] Uranyl ion contamination in uranium oxides has been detected in the residue of DU munitions fires.^[79][80]

Radiological hazards

External exposure to radiation from pure depleted uranium is less of a concern because the alpha particle emitted by its isotopes travel only a few centimeters in air or can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Also, the low concentration of uranium-235 that remains in depleted uranium emits only a small amount of low-energy gamma radiation.

However, internal alpha radiation exposure from a particle lodged in tissues is a more serious matter, since the adjacent tissues will be repeatedly irradiated.

According to the World Health Organization, a radiation dose from it would be about 60 percent of that from purified natural uranium with the same mass. Approximately 90 micrograms of natural uranium, on average, exist in the human body as a result of normal intake of water, food and air. The majority of this is found in the skeleton, with the rest in various organs and tissues.

However, in a matter of a month or so, depleted uranium generates amounts of thorium-234 and protactinium-234 which emit beta particles at almost the same rate as that of the alpha particles from the uranium-238. Two beta particles are emitted for each alpha particle. (See Radium series.)

The radiological dangers of pure depleted uranium are lower (60 percent) than those of naturally-occurring uranium due to the removal of the more radioactive isotopes, as well as due to its long half-life (4.46 billion years). Depleted uranium differs from natural uranium in its isotopic composition, but its biochemistry is for the most part the same. For further details see actinides in the environment.

Gulf War syndrome and soldier complaints

Increased rates of immune system disorders and other wide-ranging symptoms, including chronic pain, fatigue and memory loss, have been reported in over one quarter of combat veterans of the 1991 Gulf War.^[82] Combustion products from depleted uranium munitions are being considered as one of the potential causes by the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses, as DU was used in 30 mm and smaller caliber machine-gun bullets on a large scale for the first time in the Gulf War. Veterans of the conflicts in the Persian Gulf, Bosnia and Kosovo have been found to have up to 14 times the usual level of chromosome abnormalities in their genes.^[83][84] Serum-soluble genotoxic teratogens produce congenital disorders, and in white blood cells causes immune system damage.^[85]

Human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in the offspring of persons exposed to DU.^[9] A 2001 study of 15,000 February 1991 U.S. Gulf War combat veterans and 15,000 control veterans found that the Gulf War veterans were 1.8 (fathers) to 2.8 (mothers) times more likely to have children with birth defects.^[86] After examination of children's medical records two years later, the birth defect rate increased by more than 20%:

"Dr. Kang found that male Gulf War veterans reported having infants with likely birth defects at twice the rate of non-veterans. Furthermore, female Gulf War veterans were almost three times more likely to report children with birth defects than their non-Gulf counterparts. The numbers changed somewhat with medical records verification. However, Dr. Kang and his colleagues concluded that the risk of birth defects in children of deployed male veterans still was about 2.2 times that of non-deployed veterans."^[87]

In early 2004, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service attributed birth defect claims from a February 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning.^[88][89] Children of British soldiers who fought in wars in which depleted uranium ammunition was used are at greater risk of suffering genetic diseases such as congenital malformations, commonly called "birth defects," passed on by their fathers. In a study of U.K. troops, "Overall, the risk of any malformation among pregnancies reported by men was 50% higher in Gulf War Veterans (GWV) compared with Non-GWVs."^[90]

The U.S. Army has commissioned ongoing research into potential risks of depleted uranium and other projectile weapon materials like tungsten, which the U.S. Navy has used in place of DU since 1993. Studies by the U.S. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute conclude that moderate exposures to either depleted uranium or uranium present a significant toxicological threat.^[91]

One particular subgroup of veterans which may be at higher risk comprises those who have internally retained fragments of DU from shrapnel wounds. A laboratory study on rats produced by the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute showed that, after a study period of 6 months, rats treated with depleted uranium coming from implanted pellets, comparable to the average levels in the urine of Desert Storm veterans with retained DU fragments, had developed a significant tendency to lose weight with respect to the control group.^[92]

Substantial amounts of uranium were accumulating in their brains and central nervous systems, and showed a significant reduction of neuronal activity in the hippocampus in response to external stimuli. The conclusions of the study show that brain damage from chronic uranium intoxication is possible at lower doses than previously thought. Results from computer-based neurocognitive tests performed in 1997 showed an association between uranium in the urine and "problematic performance on automated tests assessing performance efficiency and accuracy."^[93]

In 2003 Professor Brian Spratt FRS, chairman of the Royal Society's working group on depleted uranium, said: "The question of who carries out the initial monitoring and clean-up is a political rather than scientific question," and "the coalition needs to acknowledge that depleted uranium is a potential hazard and make in-roads into tackling it by being open about where and how much depleted uranium has been deployed." ^[8]

The Iraqi population

Since 2001, medical personnel at the Basra hospital in southern Iraq have reported a sharp increase in the incidence of child leukemia and genetic malformation among babies born in the decade following the Gulf War. Iraqi doctors attributed these malformations to possible long-term effects of DU, an opinion which was echoed by several newspapers.^{[94][95][96][97]} In 2004, Iraq had the highest mortality rate due to leukemia of any country.^[98] The International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons (ICBUW) has made a call to support an epidemiological study in the Basra region, as asked for by Iraqi doctors,^[99] but no peer-reviewed study has yet been undertaken in Basra.

A medical survey, “Cancer, Infant Mortality and Birth Sex Ratio in Fallujah, Iraq 2005-2009”, published in July 2010, states that the “Increase in cancer and birth defects…are alarmingly high” and that infant mortality 2009/2010 have reached 13.6%. The group compares the dramatic increase, five years after the actual war 2004, or exposure, with the lymphoma Italian peacekeepers developed after the Balkan wars, and the increased cancer risk in certain parts of Sweden due to the Chernobyl fallout. The origin and time of introduction of the carcinogenic agent causing the genetic stress, the group will address in a separate report.^[100]

1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia

In 2001, doctors at the Serb-run hospital in Kosovska Mitrovica say the number of patients suffering from malignant diseases has increased by 200% since 1998.^[101] In the same year, the World Health Organization reported that data from Kosovo was inconclusive and called for further studies.^[102]

A 2003 study by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in Bosnia and Herzegovina stated that low levels of contaminate were found in drinking water and air particulate at DU penetrator impact points. The levels were stated as not a cause for alarm. Yet, Pekka Haavisto, chairman of the UNEP DU projects stated, "The findings of this study stress again the importance of appropriate clean-up and civil protection measures in a post-conflict situation."^[103]

Studies indicating negligible effects

Studies in 2005 and earlier have concluded that DU ammunition has no measurable detrimental health effects.

A 1999 literature review conducted by the Rand Corporation stated: "No evidence is documented in the literature of cancer or any other negative health effect related to the radiation received from exposure to depleted or natural uranium, whether inhaled or ingested, even at very high doses,"^[104] and a RAND report authored by the U.S. Defense department undersecretary charged with evaluating DU hazards considered the debate to be more political than scientific.^[105]

A 2001 oncology study concluded that "the present scientific consensus is that DU exposure to humans, in locations where DU ammunition was deployed, is very unlikely to give rise to cancer induction".^[106] Former NATO Secretary General Lord Robertson stated in 2001 that "the existing medical consensus is clear. The hazard from depleted uranium is both very limited, and limited to very specific circumstances".^[107]

A 2002 study from the Australian defense ministry concluded that “there has been no established increase in mortality or morbidity in workers exposed to uranium in uranium processing industries... studies of Gulf War veterans show that, in those who have retained fragments of depleted uranium following combat related injury, it has been possible to detect elevated urinary uranium levels, but no kidney toxicity or other adverse health effects related to depleted uranium after a decade of follow-up.”^[108] Pier Roberto Danesi, then-director of the IAEA Seibersdorf +Laboratory, stated in 2002 that "There is a consensus now that DU does not represent a health threat".^[109]

The International Atomic Energy Agency reported in 2003 that, "based on credible scientific evidence, there is no proven link between DU exposure and increases in human cancers or other significant health or environmental impacts," although "Like other heavy metals, DU is potentially poisonous. In sufficient amounts, if DU is ingested or inhaled it can be harmful because of its chemical toxicity. High concentration could cause kidney damage." The IAEA concluded that while depleted uranium is a potential carcinogen, there is no evidence that it has been carcinogenic in humans.^[110]

A 2005 study by Sandia National Laboratories’ Al Marshall used mathematical models to analyze potential health effects associated with accidental exposure to depleted uranium during the 1991 Gulf War. Marshall’s study concluded that the reports of cancer risks from DU exposure are not supported by veteran medical statistics, but Marshall did not consider reproductive health effects.^[111]

Other contamination cases

On October 4, 1992, an El Al Boeing 747-F cargo aircraft Flight 1862, crashed into an apartment building in Amsterdam. Local residents and rescue workers complained of various unexplained health issues which were being attributed to the release of hazardous materials during the crash and subsequent fires. Authorities conducted an epidemiological study in 2000 of those believed to be affected by the accident. The study concluded that there was no evidence to link depleted uranium (used as a counter balance in the plane) to any of the reported health complaints.^[55]

See also

• Environmental issues with war

References

External links

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links. (May 2009)

Scientific bodies

• US Health Physics Society

United Nations

• "Depleted Uranium: Sources, Exposure and Health Effects," World Health Organization, Ionizing Radiation Unit, 2001 (see Chapter 8, "The Chemical Toxicity of Uranium," in particular.)
• "Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering"
  (The UN 2002 report)
• The "Report of the World Health Organization Depleted Uranium Mission to Kosovo" (Draft text 28 January 2001). Undertaken at the request of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General and Head of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), from 22 January to 31 January 2001.
• Depleted Uranium and the IAEA

Scientific reports

• ATSDR - Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM): Uranium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: Toxicological Profile for Uranium (includes discussion of teratogenic and immunotoxic effects)
• "Depleted Uranium in Bosnia and Herzegovina - Postconflict Assessment" by UN Environment Programme
• "Radiological Conditions in Areas of Kuwait With Residues of Depleted Uranium" by International Atomic Energy Agency
• "Technical Report on Capacity-building for the Assessment of Depleted Uranium in Iraq" by UN Environment Programme
• "A Review of the Scientific Literature As It Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses" by RAND
• Domingo, J.L. (2001) "Reproductive and developmental toxicity of natural and depleted uranium: a review" Reproductive Toxicology, 15, 603–609.
• Lestaevel, P. et al. (2005) "The brain is a target organ after acute exposure to depleted uranium" Toxicology, 212, 219–226.
• Depleted Uranium article from the Royal Society
• An Analysis of Uranium Dispersal and Health Effects Using a Gulf War Case Study by Sandia National Laboratories
• Depleted Uranium Human Health Fact Sheet by Argonne National Laboratory Environmental Assessment Division
• Uranium Human Health Fact Sheet

Other publications

• Gulflink answers to FAQ's on military use of depleted uranium
• Depleted uranium: the health debate Extract from article discussing the medical effects of depleted uranium
• Campaign Against Depleted Uranium
• Depleted UF6 Management Information Network – on U.S. Department of Energy's inventory of depleted uranium hexafluoride.
• Guardian Unlimited's Special Report on Depleted Uranium
• International Atomic Energy Agency Depleted Uranium FAQ
• Proposal for Research on Depleted Uranium (UK Ministry of Defence)
• UK MOD Directorate of Safety & Claims (DS&C) Health Physics - Depleted Uranium
• Depleted Uranium on Hawaii's Army Ranges

Video

• "Q&A Segment, DU Forum" Minnesota Department of Veterans Affairs (2009)

de:Abreicherung es:Uranio empobrecido fa:اورانیوم تضعیف شده fr:Uranium appauvri ko:감손 우라늄 hr:Osiromašeni uranij id:Uranium terdeplesi is:rýrt úran it:Uranio impoverito he:אורניום מדולדל hu:Szegényített urán nl:Verarmd uranium ja:劣化ウラン no:Utarmet uran pl:Uran zubożony pt:Urânio empobrecido ro:Uraniu sărăcit ru:Обеднённый уран simple:Depleted uranium sk:Ochudobnený urán sl:Osiromašeni uran fi:Köyhdytetty uraani sv:Utarmat uran tr:Zayıflatılmış Uranyum

1. ↑ archived source from osd.mil
2. ↑ "Properties and Characteristics of DU" U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense
3. ↑ "UN Press Release UNEP/81: Uranium 236 found in depleted uranium penetrators". UN. 
4. ↑ ^{4.0 4.1 4.2} Miller AC, McClain D. (2007 Jan-Mar). "A review of depleted uranium biological effects: in vitro and in vivo studies". Rev Environ Health. 22 (1): 75–89. PMID 17508699.  Check date values in: |date= (help)
5. ↑ John E. Pattison, Richard P. Hugtenburg and Stuart Green (2010), "Enhancement of Natural Background Gamma-radiation Dose around Uranium Micro-particles in the Human Body", Journal of the Royal Society Interface 7(45):603-611. DOI 10.1098/rsif.2009.0300.
6. ↑ ^{6.0 6.1 6.2} E. S. Craft, A. W. Abu-Qare, M. M. Flaherty, M. C. Garofolo, H. L. Rincavage, M. B. Abou-Donia (2004). "Depleted and natural uranium: chemistry and toxicological effects". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews. 7 (4): 297–317. doi:10.1080/10937400490452714. PMID 15205046. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
7. ↑ ^{7.0 7.1} Mitsakou C, Eleftheriadis K, Housiadas C, Lazaridis M Modeling of the dispersion of depleted uranium aerosol. 2003 Apr, Retrieved January 15, 2009
8. ↑ ^{8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3} Paul Brown, Gulf troops face tests for cancer guardian.co.uk 25 April 2003, Retrieved February 3, 2009
9. ↑ ^{9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3} Hindin, R.; et al. (2005). "Teratogenicity of depleted uranium aerosols: A review from an epidemiological perspective". Environmental Health. 4 (7a): 17. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-4-17. PMID 1242351. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
10. ↑ World Health Organization. "Depleted uranium". 
11. ↑ World Health Organization. "Depleted uranium". 
12. ↑ Angus Stickler, BBC. "Depleted Uranium Weapons". 
13. ↑ Peter Diehl (1999). "Depleted Uranium: A By-product of the Nuclear Chain". International Network of Engineers and Scientists Against Proliferation. 
14. ↑ Douglas Hamilton (25 January). "NATO: 50 Countries See No Depleted Uranium Illness". Reuters Health Information.  Check date values in: |year=, |date=, |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
15. ↑ "Is an Armament Sickening U.S. Soldiers?". Associated Press. August 12, 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-01. 
16. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Citation/CS1/Suggestions' not found.
17. ↑ How much depleted uranium hexafluoride is stored in the United States
18. ↑ Depleted UF₆ Management Program Documents
19. ↑ What happens if a cylinder of uranium hexafluoride leaks?
20. ↑ IEER: Science for Democratic Action Vol. 5 No. 2
21. ↑ Cibola County Beacon - News
22. ↑ FAQ 30-Have there been accidents involving uranium hexafluoride?
23. ↑ FAQ 22-What is going to happen to the uranium hexafluoride stored in the United States?
24. ↑ FAQ 27-Are there any currently-operating disposal facilities that can accept all of the depleted uranium oxide that would be generated from conversion of DOE's depleted UF6 inventory?
25. ↑ ^{25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4} US Dept. of Energy Handbook, "Primer on Spontaneous Heating and Pyrophoricity", Chapter "Uranium"
26. ↑ Fahey, D. (2003) "Science or Science Fiction? Facts, Myths and Propaganda In the Debate Over Depleted Uranium Weapons", Table 1 on p. 13
27. ↑ Kalinich, J.F.; et al. (June 2005). "Embedded Weapons-Grade Tungsten Alloy Shrapnel Rapidly Induces Metastatic High-Grade Rhabdomyosarcomas in F344 Rats". Environmental Health Perspectives. 113 (6). CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) doi:10.1289/ehp.7791
28. ↑ The International Legality of the Use of Depleted Uranium Weapons: A Precautionary Approach, Avril McDonald, Jann K. Kleffner and Brigit Toebes, eds. (TMC Asser Press Fall-2003)
29. ↑ "Depleted uranium found in Gaza victims", January 4, 2009
30. ↑ 18 U.S.C. § 921(a)(17)
31. ↑ "legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons". 
32. ↑ "Citizen Inspectors Foiled in Search for DU Weapons". 
33. ↑ "Depleted Uranium UN Resolutions". 
34. ↑ "Sub-Commission resolution 1996/16". 
35. ↑ "Opendocument Sub-Commission resolution 1997/36". 
36. ↑ E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/38 "Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering" Check |url= value (help). (backup) "In its decision 2001/36 of 16 August 2001, the Sub-Commission, recalling its resolutions 1997/36 and 1997/37 of 28 August 1997, authorized Mr. Y.K.J. Yeung Sik Yuen to prepare, without financial implications, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, the working paper originally assigned to Ms. Forero Ucros."
37. ↑ The Associated Press & Reuters contributed to this report: Use of DU weapons could be war crime CNN January 14, 2001
38. ↑ Joe Sills et al Environmental Crimes in Military Actions and the International Criminal Court (ICC)-United Nations Perspectives (PDF) (HTML) of American Council for the UN University, April 2002. Page 28
39. ↑ The Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Use of Depleted Uranium Projectiles
40. ↑ "ICBUW's membership includes 85 groups in 22 countries worldwide". The International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons. 27 September 2006. Retrieved 2007-03-22. 
41. ↑ "Session Document: European Parliament resolution on the harmful effects of unexploded ordnance (landmines and cluster submunitions) and depleted uranium ammunition" (PDF). 10 February 2003. Retrieved 2007-03-22. 
42. ↑ "European Parliament Makes Fourth Call for DU Ban". The International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons. 22 November 2006. Retrieved 2007-03-22. 
43. ↑ "DU: Some NATO Countries Reject Moratorium". UN Wire. 11 January 2001. Retrieved 2007-03-22. 
44. ↑ "Depleteduranium - epetition reply". The Prime Minister's Office. 22 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-22. 
45. ↑ ^{45.0 45.1} United Nations General Assembly Verbotim Report meeting 61 session 62 page 14, The Acting President on 5 December 2007 (retrieved 2008-08-21)
46. ↑ United Nations General Assembly Verbotim Report meeting 61 session 62 page 25, Mr. De Klerk Netherlands on 5 December 2007 (retrieved 2008-08-21)
47. ↑ ^{47.0 47.1} Staff. UN Secretary General Publishes Report on Uranium Weapons, ICBUW, 17 September 2008
48. ↑ ^{48.0 48.1} UN Department of Public Information: Effects of the use of Armaments and Ammunitions Containing Depleted Uranium (A/C.1/63/L.26) See draft XIV and also Annex XIII
49. ↑ http://www.bandepleteduranium.org/en/a/274.html Belgium bans uranium weapons
50. ↑ http://www.bandepleteduranium.org/en/docs/69.pdf English translation of Belgian text banning uranium weapons and armour
51. ↑ http://www.dekamer.be/FLWB/PDF/52/1935/52K1935001.pdf Belgian Senate votes to ban investments by Belgian financial institutions into uranium weapon manufacturers.
52. ↑ http://www.bandepleteduranium.org/en/docs/110.pdf Resolución Latinoamericana de la Comision de Derechos Humanos, Justicia y Politicas Carcelarias: Prohibición de las armas de uranio.
53. ↑ "The INC IR-100 Gamma Ray Camera". 
54. ↑ "Depleted Uranium found as Coloring Matter in Enamel (France)". 
55. ↑ ^{55.0 55.1} Uijt de Haag P.A. and Smetsers R.C. and Witlox H.W. and Krus H.W. and Eisenga A.H. (2000). "Evaluating the risk from depleted uranium after the Boeing 747-258F crash in Amsterdam, 1992". J Hazard Mater. 76 (1): 39–58. doi:10.1016/S0304-3894(00)00183-7. PMID 10863013. 
56. ↑ "Avoiding or Minimizing Encounters with Aircraft Equipped with Depleted Uranium Balance Weights during Accident Investigations". 
57. ↑ Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1999). "Toxicological profile for uranium". Washington, DC, US Public Health Service. 
58. ↑ Health Effects of Uranium. "Toxicological profile for uranium". 
59. ↑ Williams, M. (February 9, 2004) "First Award for Depleted Uranium Poisoning Claim," The Herald Online, (Edinburgh: Herald Newspapers, Ltd.)
60. ↑ Campaign Against Depleted Uranium (Spring, 2004) "MoD Forced to Pay Pension for DU Contamination," CADU News 17)
61. ↑ Larry Johnson. "Iraqi cancers, birth defects blamed on U.S. depleted uranium." Seattle Post-Intelligencer. 
62. ↑ Alex Kirby (1999-06-07). "Depleted uranium: the lingering poison". BBC. 
63. ↑ J.J. Richardson (1999-06-23). "Depleted Uranium: The Invisible Threat". Mother Jones Magazine. 
64. ↑ John O'Callaghan (1999-07-30). "Panel says depleted uranium shells leave birth defects, death". Reuters News Service. 
65. ↑ Susan Taylor Martin (2003-05-25). "How harmful is depleted uranium?". St. Petersburg Times. 
66. ↑ Juan Gonzalez (2004-09-29). "The War's Littlest Victim". N.Y. Daily News. 
67. ↑ Miller, A.C. (2002) "Depleted uranium-catalyzed oxidative DNA damage: absence of significant alpha particle decay," Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 91, pp. 246-252; PMID 12121782.
68. ↑ «Gmelin Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie» 8th edition, English translation, Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. U-A7 (1982) pp. 300–322.)
69. ↑ Naomi H. Harley, Earnest C. Foulkes, Lee H. Hilborne, Arlene Hudson and C. Ross Anthony (1999). A Review of the Scientific Literature as it Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses, Volume 7 - Depleted Uranium (PDF). Washington, DC: National Defense Research Institute, RAND. pp. 1–12. ISBN 0-8330-2681-X (v.7) Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help). MR-1018/7-OSD. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) (an HTML copy of the text is also available, as part of Rostker, B. (2000) Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II) Environmental Exposure Reports Tech. Rep. No. 2000179-2 (Washington, DC: Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense)), citing Army Environmental Policy Institute (June, 1995) "Health and Environmental Consequences of Depleted Uranium Use in the US Army," (Champaign, Illinois) and U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (1998) "Interim Summary, Total Uranium and Isotope Uranium Results" (Operation Southern Watch) CHPPM Project No. 47-EM-8111-98.
70. ↑ Wan B, Fleming J, Schultz T, Sayler G (2006). "In vitro immune toxicity of depleted uranium: effects on murine macrophages, CD4+ T cells, and gene expression profiles". Environ Health Perspect. 114 (1): 85–91. PMC 1332661 Freely accessible. PMID 16393663. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
71. ↑ Arfsten D. P., Still K. R., Ritchie G. D. (2001). "A review of the effects of uranium and depleted uranium exposure on reproduction and fetal development". Toxicol Ind Health. 17 (5-10): 180–91. doi:10.1191/0748233701th111oa. PMID 12539863. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
72. ↑ Domingo J. L. (2001). "Reproductive and developmental toxicity of natural and depleted uranium: a review". Reprod Toxicol. 15 (6): 603–9. doi:10.1016/S0890-6238(01)00181-2. PMID 11738513. 
73. ↑ Briner W., Murray J. (2005). "Effects of short-term and long-term depleted uranium exposure on open-field behavior and brain lipid oxidation in rats". Neurotoxicolgy and Teratology. 27 (1): 135–44. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2004.09.001. PMID 15681127. 
74. ↑ A.C.Miller, D.Beltran, R.Rivas, M.Stewart, R.J.Merlot and P.B. Lison (June 2005). Radiation- and Depleted Uranium-Induced Carcinogenesis Studies: Characterization of the Carcinogenic Process and Development of Medical Countermeasures (PDF). CD 05-2. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute. NATO RTG-099 2005. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
75. ↑ Rostker, B. (2000) "Research Report Summaries," Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II) Environmental Exposure Report no. 2000179-2, Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense.
76. ↑ Mitsakou, C., et al. (2003) "Modeling of the dispersion of depleted uranium aerosol," Health Physics 84(4), pp. 538-544.
77. ↑ Horan, P., et al. (2003) "The quantitative analysis of depleted uranium isotopes in British, Canadian, and U.S. Gulf War veterans," Military Medicine 167(8), pp. 620-627; PMID 12188230.
78. ↑ Carter, R.F. and K. Stewart (1970) "On the oxide fume formed by the combustion of plutonium and uranium," Inhaled Particles 2, pp. 819-38; PMID 5527739.
79. ↑ Salbu, B. et al. (2005) "Oxidation states of uranium in depleted uranium particles from Kuwait," Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 78, 125-135.
80. ↑ Rostker, B. (2000) "Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II)" Environmental Exposure Reports Tech. Rep. No. 2000179-2 (Washington, DC: Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense)
81. ↑ I. Al-Sadoon, et al., writing in the Medical Journal of Basrah University, (see Table 1 here). This version from data by same author(s) in Wilcock, A.R., ed. (2004) "Uranium in the Wind" (Ontario: Pandora Press) ISBN 097361532X
82. ↑ U.S. Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (2004) "Scientific Progress in Understanding Gulf War Veterans’ Illnesses: Report and Recommendations"
83. ↑ Fleming, N. and Townsend, M. (August 11, 2002) "Gulf veteran babies 'risk deformities'," The Observer, (London: Guardian News and Media, Ltd.)
84. ↑ Arfsten DP, Still KR, Ritchie GD (2001). "A review of the effects of uranium and depleted uranium exposure on reproduction and fetal development". Toxicology and Industrial Health. 17 (5-10): 180–191. doi:10.1191/0748233701th111oa. PMID 12539863. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
85. ↑ Schröder H, Heimers A, Frentzel-Beyme R, Schott A, Hoffman W (2003). "Chromosome Aberration Analysis in Peripheral Lymphocytes of Gulf War and Balkans War Veterans". Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 103 (3): 211–219. PMID 12678382.  External link in |title= (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
86. ↑ Kang, H.; et al. (2001). "Pregnancy Outcomes Among U.S. Gulf War Veterans: A Population-Based Survey of 30,000 Veterans". Annals of Epidemiology. 11 (7): 504–511. doi:10.1016/S1047-2797(01)00245-9. PMID 11557183. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
87. ↑ Department of Veterans Affairs (2003) "Q's & A's - New Information Regarding Birth Defects," Gulf War Review 12(1), p. 10.
88. ↑ "Gulf soldier wins pension fight". BBC News. 2004-02-02. 
89. ↑ Sample, Ian (2003-04-17). "When the dust settleslink". London: Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved 2010-05-01. 
90. ↑ Doyle, P., et al. (2004) "Miscarriage, stillbirth and congenital malformation in the offspring of UK veterans of the first Gulf war," International Journal of Epidemiology, 33(1), pp. 74-86; PMID 15075150.
91. ↑ D.E. McClain, A.C.Miller and J.F.Kalinich (June 2005). Status of Health Concerns about Military Use of Depleted Uranium and Surrogate Metals in Armor-Penetrating Munitions (PDF). CD 05-2. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute. 
92. ↑ T.C.Pellmar, J.B. Hogan, K.A.Benson and M.R.Landauer (February 1998). Toxicological Evaluation of Depleted Uranium in Rats: Six Month Evaluation Point (PDF). Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute. AFRRI Special Publication 98-1. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
93. ↑ Bordujenko, A. (September 2002). "Military medical aspects of depleted uranium munitions" (PDF). ADF Health. Australian Defence Forces. 3. 
94. ↑ Elizabeth Neuffer Iraqis Trace Surge in Cancer to US Bombings Boston Globe January 26, 2003, Page: A11 Section: National/Foreign
95. ↑ Larry Johnson Iraqi cancers, birth defects blamed on U.S. depleted uranium Seattle Post-Intelligencer November 12, 2002, Retrieved January 25, 2009
96. ↑ Sunday Herald, January 14th, 2001
97. ↑ St Petersburg Times, May 25, 2003
98. ↑ WHO Data, 2004
99. ↑ ICBUW
100. ↑ Cancer, Infant Mortality and Birth Sex-Ratio in Fallujah, Iraq, 2005-2009, By Chris Busby, Malak Hamdan and Enteser Ariabi, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health July, 2010, ISSN 1660-4601
101. ↑ "BBC News | EUROPE | Uranium tests for Serbs". News.bbc.co.uk. 15 January 2001. Retrieved 2008-09-08. 
102. ↑ Report of the WHO's Depleted Uranium Mission to Kosovo (pdf 123kb) January 22–31, 2001
103. ↑ Low-level DU contamination found in Bosnia and Herzegovina, UNEP calls for precaution United Nations Environment Programme, 25 March 2003, Retrieved January 25, 2009
104. ↑ ""A Review of the Scientific Literature as it Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses," Rand Report, 1999". 
105. ↑ Bernard D. Rostker Depleted Uranium, A Case Study of Good and Evil. RAND Corporation
106. ↑ James P. Mc Laughin, Michael P.R. Waligorski (2001). "Depleted Uranium - A Health, Environmental or Societal Issue?" (PDF). Archive of Oncology. 9 (4): 213. 
107. ↑ NATO Press Conference on Depleted Uranium
108. ↑ Military medical aspects of depleted uranium munitions
109. ↑ Richard Stone (2002-09-13). "ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY: New Findings Allay Concerns Over Depleted Uranium". Science Magazine. 
110. ↑ "IAEA Depleted Uranium Factsheet". 
111. ↑ An Analysis of Uranium Dispersal and Health Effects Using a Gulf War Case Study, Albert C. Marshall, Sandia National Laboratories