Difference between revisions of "Mercury (element)"

Latest revision as of 20:35, 20 September 2010

Mercury, also known as quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a chemical element with the symbol Hg (Latinized Greek: hydrargyrum, from "hydr-" meaning watery or runny and "argyros" meaning silver) and atomic number 80. Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure; the only other element that is liquid under these conditions is bromine.^[1] With a melting point of −38.83 °C and boiling point of 356.73 °C, mercury has one of the broadest ranges of its liquid state of any metal. A heavy, silvery d-block metal, mercury is also one of the five metallic chemical elements that are liquid at or near room temperature and pressure,^[2][3] the others being caesium, francium, gallium, and rubidium.

Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide), which is the source of the red pigment vermilion, and is mostly obtained by reduction from cinnabar. Cinnabar is highly toxic by ingestion or inhalation of the dust. Mercury poisoning can also result from exposure to soluble forms of mercury (such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury), inhalation of mercury vapor, or eating seafood contaminated with mercury.

Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers, manometers, sphygmomanometers, float valves, some electrical switches, and other scientific apparatus, though concerns about the element's toxicity have led to mercury thermometers and sphygmomanometers being largely phased out in clinical environments in favor of alcohol-filled, digital, or thermistor-based instruments. It remains in use in a number of other ways in scientific and scientific research applications, and in amalgam material for dental restoration. It is used in lighting: electricity passed through mercury vapor in a phosphor tube produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor to fluoresce, making visible light.

Properties

Physical properties

Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white metal. As compared to other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of electricity.^[4]

Chemical properties

Mercury has an exceptionally low melting temperature for a d-block metal. A complete explanation of this fact requires a deep excursion into quantum physics, but it can be summarized as follows: mercury has a unique electronic configuration where electrons fill up all the available 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d and 6s subshells. As such configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gas elements, which form weak bonds and thus easily melting solids. The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell. An f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus (see lanthanide contraction). The absence of a filled inner f shell is the reason for the much higher melting temperature of cadmium. Metals such as gold have atoms with one less 6s electron than mercury. Those electrons are more easily removed and are shared between the gold atoms forming relatively strong metallic bonds.^[3][5] At the melting point (−38.86 °C) its density is^[6] 13.534 g/cm³.

Reactivity and compounds

Mercury dissolves to form amalgams with gold, zinc and many other metals. Because iron is an exception, iron flasks have been traditionally used to trade mercury. Other metals that do not form amalgams with mercury include tantalum, tungsten and platinum. When heated, mercury also reacts with oxygen in air to form mercury oxide, which then can be decomposed by further heating to higher temperatures.^[7]

Since it is below hydrogen in the reactivity series of metals, mercury does not react with most acids, such as dilute sulfuric acid, though oxidizing acids such as concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua regia dissolve it to give sulfate, nitrate, and chloride salts. Like silver, mercury reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide. Mercury even reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury vapors (spill kits also use activated carbon and powdered zinc).^[7]

Some important mercury salts include:

• Mercury(I) chloride (calomel) is sometimes still used in medicine, acousto-optical filters and as a standard in electrochemistry;^[8]
• Mercury(II) chloride is a very corrosive, easily sublimating and poisonous substance;^[4]
• Mercury fulminate, (a detonator widely used in explosives);^[4]
• Mercury(II) oxide, the main oxide of mercury;
• Mercury(II) sulfide (found naturally as the ore cinnabar, or vermilion which is a high-grade paint pigment);^[4]
• Mercury(II) selenide, Mercury(II) telluride, Mercury cadmium telluride and mercury zinc telluride are semiconductors and infrared detector materials.^[9]

In these compounds, mercury displays two oxidation states: +1 and +2. The +1 state oxidation involves the dimeric cation, Hg2+2. Solutions of Hg2+2 are in equilibrium with Hg²⁺ and metallic mercury:

Hg²⁺ + Hg 15px Hg2+2

This equilibrium causes solutions of Hg2+2 to have a small amount of Hg²⁺ present. Consuming the Hg²⁺ by another reaction, such as complexation with strong ligands or precipitation of an insoluble salt, will cause all the Hg2+2 to fully disproportionate to Hg²⁺ and elemental mercury.^[10]

Besides Hg2+2, mercury also forms other mercury polycations such as Hg2+3.^[11]

Higher oxidation states of mercury were confirmed in September 2007, with the synthesis of mercury(IV) fluoride (HgF₄) using matrix isolation techniques.^[12]

Laboratory tests have found that an electrical discharge causes the noble gases to combine with mercury vapor. These compounds are held together with van der Waals forces and result in Hg·Ne, Hg·Ar, Hg·Kr, and Hg·Xe (see exciplex). Organic mercury compounds are also important. Methylmercury is a dangerous compound that is widely found as a pollutant in water bodies and streams.^[13]

Mercury and aluminium

Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. However, when the amalgam is exposed to air, the aluminium oxidizes, leaving mercury behind. The oxide flakes away, exposing more mercury amalgam, which repeats the process. This process continues until the supply of amalgam is exhausted. Because this process releases mercury, a small amount of mercury can "eat through" a large amount of aluminium over time, by progressively forming amalgam and relinquishing the aluminium as oxide.^[14]

Aluminium in air is ordinarily protected by a molecule-thin layer of its own oxide, which is not porous to oxygen. Mercury coming into contact with this oxide does no harm. However, if any elemental aluminium is exposed (even by a recent scratch), the mercury may combine with it, starting the process described above, and potentially damaging a large part of the aluminium before it finally ends.^[14][15] For this reason, restrictions are placed on the use and handling of mercury in proximity with aluminium. In particular, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft.^[14]

Isotopes

There are seven stable isotopes of mercury with ²⁰²Hg being the most abundant (29.86%). The longest-lived radioisotopes are ¹⁹⁴Hg with a half-life of 444 years, and ²⁰³Hg with a half-life of 46.612 days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than a day. ¹⁹⁹Hg and ²⁰¹Hg are the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having spins of ​¹⁄₂ and ​³⁄₂ respectively.^[4]

History

Mercury was found in Egyptian tombs that date from 1500 BC.^[16] It was also known to the ancient Chinese.^[17] In China and Tibet, mercury use was thought to prolong life, heal fractures, and maintain generally good health. One of China's emperors, Qín Shǐ Huáng Dì — allegedly buried in a tomb that contained rivers of flowing mercury on a model of the land he ruled, representative of the rivers of China — was killed by drinking a mercury and powdered jade mixture (causing liver failure, poisoning, and brain death) intended to give him eternal life.^[18][19] The ancient Greeks used mercury in ointments; the ancient Egyptians and the Romans used it in cosmetics which sometimes deformed the face. By 500 BC mercury was used to make amalgams with other metals.^[20] The Indian word for alchemy is Rasavātam which means "the way of mercury".^[21]

Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from which all metals were formed. They believed that different metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of sulfur contained within the mercury. The purest of these was gold, and mercury was called for in attempts at the transmutation of base (or impure) metals into gold, which was the goal of many alchemists.^[22]

Hg is the modern chemical symbol for mercury. It comes from hydrargyrum, a Latinized form of the Greek word Ύδραργυρος (hydrargyros), which is a compound word meaning "water-silver" (hydr- = water, argyros = silver) — since it is liquid like water and shiny like silver. The element was named after the Roman god Mercury, known for speed and mobility. It is associated with the planet Mercury; the astrological symbol for the planet is also one of the alchemical symbols for the metal. Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name became the common name.^[22]

The mines in Almadén (Spain), Monte Amiata (Italy), and Idrija (now Slovenia) dominated the mercury production from the opening of the mine in Almadén 2500 years ago until new deposits were found at the end of the 19th century.^[23]

Occurrence

Mercury is an extremely rare element in the Earth's crust, having an average crustal abundance by mass of only 0.08 parts per million (ppm).^[24] However, because it does not blend geochemically with those elements that constitute the majority of the crustal mass, mercury ores can be extraordinarily concentrated considering the element's abundance in ordinary rock. The richest mercury ores contain up to 2.5% mercury by mass, and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0.1% mercury (12,000 times average crustal abundance). It is found either as a native metal (rare) or in cinnabar, corderoite, livingstonite and other minerals, with cinnabar (HgS) being the most common ore. Mercury ores usually occur in very young orogenic belts where rock of high density are forced to the crust of the Earth, often in hot springs or other volcanic regions.^[25]

Beginning in 1558, with the invention of the patio process to extract silver from ore using mercury, mercury became an essential resource in the economy of Spain and its American colonies. Mercury was used to extract silver from the lucrative mines in New Spain and Peru. Initially, the Spanish Crown's mines in Almaden in Southern Spain supplied all the mercury for the colonies.^[26] Mercury deposits were discovered in the New World, and more than 100,000 tons of mercury were mined from the region of Huancavelica, Peru, over the course of three centuries following the discovery of deposits there in 1563. The patio process and later pan amalgamation process continued to create great demand for mercury to treat silver ores until the late 1800s.^[27]

Former mines in Italy, the United States and Mexico which once produced a large proportion of the world supply have now been completely mined out or, in the case of Slovenia (Idrija) and Spain (Almadén), shut down due to the fall of the price of mercury. Nevada's McDermitt Mine, the last mercury mine in the United States, closed in 1992. The price of mercury has been highly volatile over the years and in 2006 was $650 per 76-pound (34.46 kg) flask.^[28]

Mercury is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor. The equation for this extraction is

HgS + O₂ → Hg + SO₂

In 2005, China was the top producer of mercury with almost two-thirds global share followed by Kyrgyzstan.^[29] Several other countries are believed to have unrecorded production of mercury from copper electrowinning processes and by recovery from effluents.

Because of the high toxicity of mercury, both the mining of cinnabar and refining for mercury are hazardous and historic causes of mercury poisoning. In China, prison labor was used by a private mining company as recently as the 1950s to create new cinnabar mercury mines. Thousands of prisoners were used by the Luo Xi mining company to establish new tunnels.^[30] In addition, worker health in functioning mines is at high risk.

The European Union directive calling for compact fluorescent bulbs to be made mandatory by 2012 has encouraged China to re-open deadly cinnabar mines to obtain the mercury required for CFL bulb manufacture. As a result, environmental dangers have been a concern, particularly in the southern cities of Foshan and Guangzhou, and in the Guizhou province in the south west.^[30]

Abandoned mercury mine processing sites often contain very hazardous waste piles of roasted cinnabar calcines. Water run-off from such sites is a recognized source of ecological damage. Former mercury mines may be suited for constructive re-use. For example, in 1976 Santa Clara County, California purchased the historic Almaden Quicksilver Mine and created a county park on the site, after conducting extensive safety and environmental analysis of the property.^[31]

Releases in the environment

Preindustrial deposition rates of mercury from the atmosphere may be about 4 ng /(1 L of ice deposit). Although that can be considered a natural level of exposure, regional or global sources have significant effects. Volcanic eruptions can increase the atmospheric source by 4–6 times.^[32]

Natural sources, such as volcanoes, are responsible for approximately half of atmospheric mercury emissions. The human-generated half can be divided into the following estimated percentages:^[33][34][35]

• 65% from stationary combustion, of which coal-fired power plants are the largest aggregate source (40% of U.S. mercury emissions in 1999). This includes power plants fueled with gas where the mercury has not been removed. Emissions from coal combustion are between one and two orders of magnitude higher than emissions from oil combustion, depending on the country.^[33]
• 11% from gold production. The three largest point sources for mercury emissions in the U.S. are the three largest gold mines. Hydrogeochemical release of mercury from gold-mine tailings has been accounted as a significant source of atmospheric mercury in eastern Canada.^[36]
• 6.8% from non-ferrous metal production, typically smelters.
• 6.4% from cement production.
• 3.0% from waste disposal, including municipal and hazardous waste, crematoria, and sewage sludge incineration. This is a significant underestimate due to limited information, and is likely to be off by a factor of two to five.
• 3.0% from caustic soda production.
• 1.4% from pig iron and steel production.
• 1.1% from mercury production, mainly for batteries.
• 2.0% from other sources.

The above percentages are estimates of the global human-caused mercury emissions in 2000, excluding biomass burning, an important source in some regions.^[33]

Current atmospheric mercury contamination in outdoor urban air is (0.01–0.02 µg/m³) indoor concentrations are significantly elevated over outdoor concentrations, in the range 0.0065–0.523 µg/m³ (average 0.069 µg/m³).^[37]

Mercury also enters into the environment through the improper disposal (e.g., land filling, incineration) of certain products. Products containing mercury include: auto parts, batteries, fluorescent bulbs, medical products, thermometers, and thermostats.^[38] Due to health concerns (see below), toxics use reduction efforts are cutting back or eliminating mercury in such products. For example, most thermometers now use pigmented alcohol instead of mercury. Mercury thermometers are still occasionally used in the medical field because they are more accurate than alcohol thermometers, though both are being replaced by electronic thermometers. Mercury thermometers are still widely used for certain scientific applications because of their greater accuracy and working range.

The United States Clean Air Act, passed in 1990, put mercury on a list of toxic pollutants that need to be controlled to the greatest possible extent. Thus, industries that release high concentrations of mercury into the environment agreed to install maximum achievable control technologies (MACT). In March 2005 EPA rule^[39] added power plants to the list of sources that should be controlled and a national cap and trade rule was issued. States were given until November 2006 to impose stricter controls, and several States are doing so. The rule was being subjected to legal challenges from several States in 2005 and decision was made in 2008. The Clean Air Mercury Rule was struck down by a Federal Appeals Court on February 8, 2008. The rule was deemed not sufficient to protect the health of persons living near coal-fired power plants. The court opinion cited the negative impact on human health from coal fired power plants' mercury emissions documented in the EPA Study Report to Congress of 1998.^[40]

Historically, one of the largest releases was from the Colex plant, a lithium-isotope separation plant at Oak Ridge. The plant operated in the 1950s and 1960s. Records are incomplete and unclear, but government commissions have estimated that some two million pounds of mercury are unaccounted for.^[41]

One of the worst industrial disasters in history was caused by the dumping of mercury compounds into Minamata Bay, Japan. The Chisso Corporation, a fertilizer and later petrochemical company, was found responsible for polluting the bay from 1932–1968. It is estimated that over 3,000 people suffered various deformities, severe mercury poisoning symptoms or death from what became known as Minamata disease.^[42]

Mapping of industrial releases in the United States

One tool that maps releases of mercury^[43] to particular locations in the United States^[44] and also provides additional information about such releases is TOXMAP. TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs. TOXMAP is a resource funded by the US Federal Government. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET)^[45] and PubMed, and from other authoritative sources.

Applications

Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some thermometers, especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly phased out due to health and safety regulations and is in some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy.

Present use

Medicine

Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine, although they are much less common today than they once were, now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely understood. The element mercury is an ingredient in dental amalgams. Thiomersal (called Thimerosal in the United States) is an organic compound used as a preservative in vaccines, though this use is in decline.^[46] Another mercury compound Merbromin (Mercurochrome) is a topical antiseptic used for minor cuts and scrapes is still in use in some countries.

Mercury(I) chloride (also known as calomel or mercurous chloride) has traditionally been used as a diuretic, topical disinfectant, and laxative. Mercury(II) chloride (also known as mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate) was once used to treat syphilis (along with other mercury compounds), although it is so toxic that sometimes the symptoms of its toxicity were confused with those of the syphilis it was believed to treat.^[47] It is also used as a disinfectant. Blue mass, a pill or syrup in which mercury is the main ingredient, was prescribed throughout the 1800s for numerous conditions including constipation, depression, child-bearing and toothaches.^[48] In the early 20th century, mercury was administered to children yearly as a laxative and dewormer, and it was used in teething powders for infants. The mercury-containing organohalide merbromin (sometimes sold as Mercurochrome) is still widely used but has been banned in some countries such as the U.S.^[49]

Since the 1930s some vaccines have contained the preservative thiomersal, which is metabolized or degraded to ethyl mercury. Although it was widely speculated that this mercury-based preservative can cause or trigger autism in children, scientific studies showed no evidence supporting any such link.^[50] Nevertheless thiomersal has been removed from or reduced to trace amounts in all U.S. vaccines recommended for children 6 years of age and under, with the exception of inactivated influenza vaccine.^[51]

Mercury in the form of one of its common ores, cinnabar, remains an important component of Chinese, Tibetan, and Ayurvedic medicine. As problems may arise when these medicines are exported to countries that prohibit the use of mercury in medicines, in recent times, less toxic substitutes have been devised.

Today, the use of mercury in medicine has greatly declined in all respects, especially in developed countries. Thermometers and sphygmomanometers containing mercury were invented in the early 18th and late 19th centuries, respectively. In the early 21st century, their use is declining and has been banned in some countries, states and medical institutions. In 2002, the U.S. Senate passed legislation to phase out the sale of non-prescription mercury thermometers. In 2003, Washington and Maine became the first states to ban mercury blood pressure devices.^[52] Mercury compounds are found in some over-the-counter drugs, including topical antiseptics, stimulant laxatives, diaper-rash ointment, eye drops, and nasal sprays. The FDA has “inadequate data to establish general recognition of the safety and effectiveness,” of the mercury ingredients in these products.^[53] Mercury is still used in some diuretics, although substitutes now exist for most therapeutic uses.

Cosmetics

Mercury, as thiomersal, is widely used in the manufacture of mascara. In 2008, Minnesota became the first state in the US to ban intentionally added mercury in cosmetics, giving it a tougher standard than the federal government.^[54]

Production of chlorine and caustic soda

Chlorine is produced from sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) using electrolysis to separate the metallic sodium from the chlorine gas. Usually the salt is dissolved in water to produce a brine. By-products of any such chloralkali process are hydrogen (H₂) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is commonly called caustic soda or lye. By far the largest use of mercury^[55][56] in the late 1900s was in the mercury cell process (also called the Castner-Kellner process) where metallic sodium is formed as an amalgam at a cathode made from mercury; this sodium is then reacted with water to produce sodium hydroxide.^[57] Many of the industrial mercury releases of the 1900s came from this process, although modern plants claimed to be safe in this regard.^[56] After about 1985, all new chloralkali production facilities that were built in the United States used either membrane cell or diaphragm cell technologies to produce chlorine.

Gold and silver mining

Historically, mercury was used extensively in hydraulic gold mining in order to help the gold to sink through the flowing water-gravel mixture. Thin mercury particles may form mercury-gold amalgam and therefore increase the gold recovery rates.^[4] Large scale use of mercury stopped in the 1960s. However, mercury is still used in small scale, often clandestine, gold prospecting. It is estimated that 45,000 metric tons of mercury used in California for placer mining have not been recovered.^[58] Mercury was also used in silver mining.^[59]

Other present uses

Gaseous mercury is used in mercury-vapor lamps and some "neon sign" type advertising signs and fluorescent lamps. Those low-pressure lamps emit very spectrally narrow lines, which are traditionally used in optical spectroscopy for calibration of spectral position. Commercial calibration lamps are sold for this purpose; however simply reflecting some of the fluorescent-lamp ceiling light into a spectrometer is a common calibration practice.^[60] Gaseous mercury is also found in some electron tubes, including ignitrons, thyratrons, and mercury arc rectifiers.^[61] It is also used in specialist medical care lamps for skin tanning and disinfection (see pictures).^[62] Gaseous mercury is added to cold cathode argon-filled lamps to increase the ionization and electrical conductivity. An argon filled lamp without mercury will have dull spots and will fail to light correctly. Lighting containing mercury can be bombarded/oven pumped only once. When added to neon filled tubes the light produced will be inconsistent red/blue spots until the initial burning-in process is completed; eventually it will light a consistent dull off-blue color.^[63]

Some medical thermometers, especially those for high temperatures, are filled with mercury, however, they are gradually disappearing. In the United States, non-prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers has been banned in 2003.^[64] Mercury is also found in liquid-mirror telescopes. The mirror is formed by rotating liquid mercury on a disk, the parabolic form of the liquid thus formed reflecting and focusing incident light. Such telescopes are cheaper than conventional large mirror telescopes by up to a factor of 100, but the mirror cannot be tilted and always points straight up.^[65][66]

Liquid mercury is a part of popular secondary reference electrode (called the calomel electrode) in electrochemistry as an alternative to the standard hydrogen electrode. The calomel electrode is used to work out the electrode potential of half cells.^[67] Last, but not least, the triple point of mercury, -38.8344 °C, is a fixed point used as a temperature standard for the International Temperature Scale (ITS-90).^[4]

Proposed uses

Liquid mercury has been proposed as a working fluid for a heat pipe type of cooling device for spacecraft heat rejection systems or radiation panels.^[68]

Historic uses

Mercury was used for preserving wood, developing daguerreotypes, silvering mirrors, anti-fouling paints (discontinued in 1990), herbicides (discontinued in 1995), handheld maze games, cleaning, and road leveling devices in cars. Mercury compounds have been used in antiseptics, laxatives, antidepressants, and in antisyphilitics. It was also allegedly used by allied spies to sabotage German planes. A mercury paste was applied to bare aluminium, causing the metal to rapidly corrode. This would cause structural failures.^[15]

• Chlor-alkali plants: The largest industrial use of mercury during the twentieth century was in large electrolysis batteries for separating chlorine and sodium from brine. The chlorine was used for bleaching paper (hence the location of many of these plants near paper mills) while the sodium was used to make sodium hydroxide for soaps and other cleaning products. This usage has largely been discontinued with the replacement of other technologies using membrane cells.^[69]
• Mercury switches (including home mercury light switches installed prior to 1970), tilt switches used in old fire detectors, tilt switches in many modern home thermostats,^[70] electrodes in some types of electrolysis, batteries (mercury cells), sodium hydroxide and chlorine production, handheld games, catalysts, insecticides and liquid mirror telescopes.^[71]
• In Islamic Spain it was used for filling decorative pools. Later the American artist Alexander Calder built a mercury fountain for the Spanish Pavilion at the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris. The fountain is now on display at the Fundació Joan Miró in Barcelona.^[72]
• Mercury was used inside wobbler lures. Its heavy, liquid form made it useful since the lures made an attractive irregular movement when the mercury moved inside the plug. Such use was stopped due to environmental concerns, but illegal preparation of modern fishing plugs has occurred.
• The Fresnel lenses of old lighthouses used to float and rotate in a bath of mercury which acted like a bearing.^[73]
• Mercury sphygmomanometers (blood pressure meter), barometers, diffusion pumps, coulometers, and many other laboratory instruments. As an opaque liquid with a high density and a nearly linear thermal expansion, it is ideal for this role.^[74]
• Liquid mercury was used as a coolant for some nuclear reactors; however, sodium is proposed for reactors cooled with liquid metal, because the high density of mercury requires much more energy to circulate as coolant.^[75]
• Mercury was a propellant for early ion engines in electric space propulsion systems. Advantages were mercury's high molecular weight, low ionization energy, low dual-ionization energy, high liquid density and liquid storability at room temperature. Disadvantages were concerns regarding environmental impact associated with ground testing and concerns about eventual cooling and condensation of some of the propellant on the spacecraft in long-duration operations. The first spaceflight to use electric propulsion was a mercury-fueled ion thruster developed by NASA Lewis and flown on the Space Electric Rocket Test "SERT-1" spacecraft launched by NASA at its Wallops Flight Facility in 1964. The SERT-1 flight was followed up by the SERT-2 flight in 1970. Mercury and caesium were preferred propellants for ion engines until Hughes Research Laboratory performed studies finding xenon gas to be a suitable replacement. Xenon is now the preferred propellant for ion engines as it has a high molecular weight, little or no reactivity due its noble gas nature, and has a high liquid density under mild cryogenic storage.^[76][77]
• Experimental mercury vapor turbines were installed to increase the efficiency of fossil-fuel electrical power plants.^[78]
• Mercury was once used as a gun barrel bore cleaner.^[79][80]

Hat making

From the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries, a process called "carroting" was used in the making of felt hats. Animal skins were rinsed in an orange solution (the term "carroting" arose from this color) of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate, Hg(NO₃)₂·2H₂O.^[81] This process separated the fur from the pelt and matted it together. This solution and the vapors it produced were highly toxic. The United States Public Health Service banned the use of mercury in the felt industry in December 1941. The psychological symptoms associated with mercury poisoning are said by some to have inspired the phrase "mad as a hatter". Lewis Carroll's "Mad Hatter" in his book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was a play on words based on the older phrase, but the character himself does not exhibit symptoms of mercury poisoning.^[82]

Safety

Mercury and most of its compounds are extremely toxic and are generally handled with care; in cases of spills involving mercury (such as from certain thermometers or fluorescent light bulbs) specific cleaning procedures are used to avoid toxic exposure.^[83] Essentially, it is recommended to physically merge smaller droplets on hard surfaces, combining them into a single larger pool for easier removal by using an eyedropper, or by pushing it into a disposable container. Vacuum cleaners and brooms should not be used because they cause greater dispersal of the mercury. Afterwards, sulfur powder, zinc powder, or some other element that readily forms an amalgam (alloy) with mercury (e.g. finely-divided Cu or Bi) at ordinary temperatures is sprinkled over the area and subsequently collected and properly disposed of. Cleaning porous surfaces and clothing is not effective at removing all traces of mercury and it is therefore advised to discard these kinds of items should they be exposed to a mercury spill.

Mercury can be inhaled and absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes, so containers of mercury are securely sealed to avoid spills and evaporation. Heating of mercury, or compounds of mercury that may decompose when heated, is always carried out with adequate ventilation in order to avoid exposure to mercury vapor. The most toxic forms of mercury are its organic compounds, such as dimethylmercury and methylmercury. However, inorganic compounds, such as cinnabar are also highly toxic by ingestion or inhalation of the dust.^[84] Mercury can cause both chronic and acute poisoning.

Occupational exposure

Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and commercial uses are regulated in many countries. The World Health Organization, OSHA, and NIOSH all treat mercury as an occupational hazard, and have established specific occupational exposure limits. Environmental releases and disposal of mercury are regulated in the U.S. primarily by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Case control studies have shown effects such as tremors, impaired cognitive skills, and sleep disturbance in workers with chronic exposure to mercury vapor even at low concentrations in the range 0.7–42 μg/m³.^[85][86] A study has shown that acute exposure (4 – 8 hours) to calculated elemental mercury levels of 1.1 to 44 mg/m³ resulted in chest pain, dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, impairment of pulmonary function, and evidence of interstitial pneumonitis.^[87] Acute exposure to mercury vapor has been shown to result in profound central nervous system effects, including psychotic reactions characterized by delirium, hallucinations, and suicidal tendency. Occupational exposure has resulted in broad-ranging functional disturbance, including erethism, irritability, excitability, excessive shyness, and insomnia. With continuing exposure, a fine tremor develops and may escalate to violent muscular spasms. Tremor initially involves the hands and later spreads to the eyelids, lips, and tongue. Long-term, low-level exposure has been associated with more subtle symptoms of erethism, including fatigue, irritability, loss of memory, vivid dreams, and depression.^[88][89]

Treatment

Research on the treatment of mercury poisoning is limited. Currently available drugs for acute mercurial poisoning include chelators N-acetyl-D, L-penicillamine (NAP), British Anti-Lewisite (BAL), 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). In one small study including 11 construction workers exposed to elemental mercury, patients were treated with DMSA and NAP.^[90] Chelation therapy with both drugs resulted in the mobilization of a small fraction of the total estimated body mercury. DMSA was able to increase the excretion of mercury to a greater extent than NAP.^[91]

Fish

Fish and shellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate mercury in their bodies, often in the form of methylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of mercury. Species of fish that are high on the food chain, such as shark, swordfish, king mackerel, albacore tuna, and tilefish contain higher concentrations of mercury than others. As mercury and methylmercury are fat soluble, they primarily accumulate in the viscera, although they are also found throughout the muscle tissue. When this fish is consumed by a predator, the mercury level is accumulated. Since fish are less efficient at depurating than accumulating methylmercury, fish-tissue concentrations increase over time. Thus species that are high on the food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher than the species they consume. This process is called biomagnification. Mercury poisoning happened this way in Minamata, Japan, now called Minamata disease.

Regulations

In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency is charged with regulating and managing mercury contamination. Several laws give the EPA this authority, including the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Safe Drinking Water Act. Additionally, the Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act, passed in 1996, phases out the use of mercury in batteries, and provides for the efficient and cost-effective disposal of many types of used batteries.^[92] North America contributed approximately 11% of the total global anthropogenic mercury emissions in 1995.^[93]

In the European Union, the directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (see RoHS) bans mercury from certain electrical and electronic products, and limits the amount of mercury in other products to less than 1000 ppm.^[94] There are restrictions for mercury concentration in packaging (the limit is 100 ppm for sum of mercury, lead, hexavalent chromium and cadmium) and batteries (the limit is 5 ppm).^[95] In July 2007, the European Union also banned mercury in non-electrical measuring devices, such as thermometers and barometers. The ban applies to new devices only, and contains exemptions for the health care sector and a two year grace period for manufacturers of barometers. ^[96]

Norway enacted a total ban on the use of mercury in the manufacturing and import/export of mercury products, effective January 1, 2008.^[97] In 2002, several lakes in Norway were found to have a poor state of mercury pollution, with an excess of 1 mg/g of mercury in their sediment.^[98]

References

Further reading

• Jane M. Hightower Diagnosis: Mercury: Money, Politics, and Poison Island Press (October 1, 2008) ISBN 1597263958 ISBN 978-1597263955

External links

• ATSDR — ToxFAQs: Mercury
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - Mercury Topic
• EPA fish consumption guidelines
• Global Mercury Assessment report 2002 by the UNEP.
• Global Mercury Project
• Hg 80 Mercury
• Japanese Sushi Lovers Shrug at Mercury
• Material Safety Data Sheet — Mercury
• Mercury Contamination in fish and Source Control, Oceana
• Mercury (UK PID). National Poisons Information Service: Medical Toxicology Unit (London Centre) - Kolev, S.T. Bates, N.
• Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC): Mercury Contamination in Fish guide — NRDC
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank — Mercury
• University of Calgary: How Mercury Causes Brain Neuron Degeneration
• WebElements.com — Mercury
• Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Mercury

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3. ↑ ^{3.0 3.1} Norrby, L.J. (1991). "Why is mercury liquid? Or, why do relativistic effects not get into chemistry textbooks?". Journal of Chemical Education. 68: 110. 
4. ↑ ^{4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6} Hammond, C. R (2000). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition (PDF). CRC press. ISBN 0849304814. 
5. ↑ "Why is mercury a liquid at STP?". Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
6. ↑ "Macroscopic Properties and Microscopic Models". 
7. ↑ ^{7.0 7.1} Patnaik, Pradyot (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds. McGraw-Hill. pp. 560–576. ISBN 0070494398. Retrieved 2009-06-06. 
8. ↑ Banus, Mg (1941). "A design for a saturated calomel electrode". Science (New York, N.Y.). 93 (2425): 601–602. doi:10.1126/science.93.2425.601-a. PMID 17795970. 
9. ↑ Rogalski, A (2000). Infrared detectors. CRC Press. p. 507. ISBN 9056992031. 
10. ↑ Henderson, W. (2000). Main group chemistry. Great Britain: Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 162. ISBN 0854046178. 
11. ↑ Brown, I. D.; Gillespie, R. J.; Morgan, K. R.; Tun, Z.; Ummat, P. K. (1984). "Preparation and crystal structure of mercury hexafluoroniobate (Hg₃NbF₆) and mercury hexafluorotantalate (Hg₃TaF₆): mercury layer compounds". Inorganic Chemistry. 23 (26): 4506–4508. doi:10.1021/ic00194a020.  edit
12. ↑ Wang, X; Andrews, L; Riedel, S; Kaupp, M (2007). "Mercury Is a Transition Metal: The First Experimental Evidence for HgF4". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. Weinheim: Wiley. 46 (44): 8371. doi:10.1002/anie.200703710. PMID 17899620.  More than one of |author1= and |last1= specified (help); More than one of |author2= and |last2= specified (help); More than one of |author3= and |last3= specified (help); More than one of |author4= and |last4= specified (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
13. ↑ National Research Council (U.S.) - Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology (2000). Toxicological effects of methylmercury. National Academies Press. ISBN 9780309071406. 
14. ↑ ^{14.0 14.1 14.2} Vargel, C.; Jacques, M.; Schmidt, M. P. (2004). Corrosion of Aluminium. Elsevier. p. 158. ISBN 20049780080444956 Check |isbn= value: length (help). CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
15. ↑ ^{15.0 15.1} Gray, T. (2004-09-22). "The Amazing Rusting Aluminum". Popular Science. Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
16. ↑ "Mercury and the environment — Basic facts". Environment Canada, Federal Government of Canada. 2004. Retrieved 2008-03-27. 
17. ↑ "Mercury — Element of the ancients". Center for Environmental Health Sciences, Dartmouth College. Retrieved 2008-03-27. 
18. ↑ "Qin Shihuang". Ministry of Culture, People's Republic of China. 2003. Retrieved 2008-03-27. 
19. ↑ Wright, David Curtis (2001). The History of China. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 49. ISBN 031330940X. 
20. ↑ Hesse R W (2007). Jewelrymaking through history. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 120. ISBN 0313335079. 
21. ↑ Cox R (1997). The Pillar of Celestial Fire. 1st World Publishing. p. 260. ISBN 1887472304. 
22. ↑ ^{22.0 22.1} Stillman, J. M. (2003). Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 7–9. ISBN 9780766132306. 
23. ↑ Eisler, R. (2006). Mercury hazards to living organisms. CRC Press. ISBN 9780849392122. 
24. ↑ Ehrlich H L, Newman D K (2008isbn=0849379067). Geomicrobiology. CRC Press. p. 265. ISBN 9780849379062.  Check date values in: |date= (help)
25. ↑ "Mercury Recycling in the United States in 2000" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
26. ↑ Burkholder, M. and Johnson, L. (2008). Colonial Latin America. Oxford University Press. pp. 157–159. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
27. ↑ Jamieson, R W (2000). Domestic Architecture and Power. Springer. p. 33. ISBN 0306461765. 
28. ↑ Brooks, W. E. (2007). "Mercury" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 
29. ↑ World Mineral Production. London: British Geological Survey, NERC. 2001-05.  Check date values in: |date=, |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
30. ↑ ^{30.0 30.1} Sheridan, M. (May 3, 2009). "'Green' Lightbulbs Poison Workers: hundreds of factory staff are being made ill by mercury used in bulbs destined for the West". The Sunday Times (of London, UK). 
31. ↑ Boulland M (2006). New Almaden. Arcadia Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 0738531316. 
32. ↑ "Glacial Ice Cores Reveal A Record of Natural and Anthropogenic Atmospheric Mercury Deposition for the Last 270 Years". United States Geological Survey (USGS). Retrieved May 1, 2007. 
33. ↑ ^{33.0 33.1 33.2} Pacyna E G, Pacyna J M, Steenhuisen F, Wilson S (2006). "Global anthropogenic mercury emission inventory for 2000". Atmos Environ. 40 (22): 4048. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.03.041. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
34. ↑ "What is EPA doing about mercury air emissions?". United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Retrieved May 1, 2007. 
35. ↑ Solnit, R. (September/October 2006). "Winged Mercury and the Golden Calf". Orion Magazine. Retrieved 2007-12-03.  Check date values in: |date= (help)
36. ↑ Maprani, Antu C.; Al, Tom A.; MacQuarrie, Kerry T.; Dalziel, John A.; Shaw, Sean A.; Yeats, Phillip A. (2005). "Determination of Mercury Evasion in a Contaminated Headwater Stream". Environmental Science & Technology. 39: 1679. doi:10.1021/es048962j. 
37. ↑ "Indoor Air Mercury" (PDF). May 2003. Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
38. ↑ "Mercury-containing Products". United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Retrieved May 1, 2007. 
39. ↑ "Clean Air Mercury Rule". United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Retrieved May 1, 2007. 
40. ↑ "State of New Jersey et al., Petitioners vs. Environmental Protection Agency (Case No. 05-1097)]" (PDF). United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Argued December 6, 2007, Decided February 8, 2008. Retrieved May 30, 2008. 
41. ↑ "Introduction". Y-12 Mercury Task Force Files: A Guide to Record Series of the Department of Energy and its Contractors. United States Department of Energy.  External link in |work= (help)
42. ↑ "Minamata Disease The History and Measures". Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
43. ↑ [1]
44. ↑ "TRI Releases Map". Toxmap.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2010-03-23. 
45. ↑ TOXNET - Databases on toxicology, hazardous chemicals, environmental health, and toxic releases
46. ↑ FDA. "Thimerosal in Vaccines". Retrieved October 25, 2006. 
47. ↑ Pimple, K.D. Pedroni, J.A. Berdon, V. (July 9, 2002). "Syphilis in history". Poynter Center for the Study of Ethics and American Institutions at Indiana University-Bloomington. Retrieved April 17, 2005. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
48. ↑ Mayell, H. (2007-07-17). "Did Mercury in "Little Blue Pills" Make Abraham Lincoln Erratic?". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2008-06-15. 
49. ↑ "What happened to Mercurochrome?". July 23, 2004. Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
50. ↑ Parker SK, Schwartz B, Todd J, Pickering LK (2004). "Thimerosal-containing vaccines and autistic spectrum disorder: a critical review of published original data". Pediatrics. 114 (3): 793. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-0434. PMID 15342856.  More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) Erratum (2005). Pediatrics 115 (1): 200. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2402 PMID 15630018.
51. ↑ "Thimerosal in vaccines". Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2007-10-01. 
52. ↑ "Two States Pass First-time Bans on Mercury Blood Pressure Devices". Health Care Without Harm. June 2, 2003. Retrieved May 1, 2007. ^{[dead link]}
53. ↑ "Title 21—Food and Drugs Chapter I—Food and Drug Administration Department of Health and Human Services Subchapter D—Drugs for Human Use Code of federal regulations". United States Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved May 1, 2007. 
54. ↑ "Mercury in your eye?". CIDPUSA. 2008-02-16. Retrieved 2009-12-20. 
55. ↑ The CRB Commodity Yearbook (annual). 2000. p. 173. ISSN 1076-2906. 
56. ↑ ^{56.0 56.1} Leopold, B. R. (2002). "Chapter 3: Manufacturing Processes Involving Mercury. Use and Release of Mercury in the United States" (PDF). National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 21, 2007. Retrieved May 1, 2007. 
57. ↑ "Chlorine Online Diagram of mercury cell process". Euro Chlor. Retrieved 2006-09-15. 
58. ↑ Alpers, C. N.; Hunerlach, M. P.; May, J. Y.; Hothem, R. L. "Mercury Contamination from Historical Gold Mining in California". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-02-26. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
59. ↑ "Mercury amalgamation". Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
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62. ↑ Milo G E, Casto B C (1990). Transformation of human diploid fibroblasts. CRC Press. p. 104. ISBN 0849349567. 
63. ↑ Shionoya, S. (1999). Phosphor handbook. CRC Press. p. 363. ISBN 0849375606. 
64. ↑ "Mercury Reduction Act of 2003". United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Environment and Public Works. Retrieved 2009-06-06. 
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66. ↑ Gibson, B. K. (1991). "Liquid mirror telescopes: history" (PDF). Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 85: 158. 
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77. ↑ "Electric space propulsion". Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
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81. ↑ Lee, J.D. (1999). Concise Inorganic Chemistry. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9780632052936. 
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83. ↑ "Mercury: Spills, Disposal and Site Cleanup". Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2007-08-11. 
84. ↑ "Safety data for mercuric sulphide". Oxford University. Retrieved 2009-07-07. 
85. ↑ Ngim, CH; Foo, SC; Boey, K.W.; Keyaratnam, J (1992). "Chronic neurobehavioral effects of elemental mercury in dentists". British Journal of Industrial Medicine. 49: 782. 
86. ↑ Liang, YX; Sun, RK; Sun, Y; Chen, ZQ; Li, LH (1993). "Psychological effects of low exposure to mercury vapor: Application of computer-administered neurobehavioral evaluation system". Environmental Research. 60 (2): 320. doi:10.1006/enrs.1993.1040. PMID 8472661.  More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help)
87. ↑ McFarland, RB and Reigel, H (1978). "Chronic Mercury Poisoning from a Single Brief Exposure". J. Occup. Med. 20: 532. doi:10.1097/00043764-197808000-00003. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
88. ↑ Environmental Health Criteria 1: Mercury. Geneva: World Health Organization. 1976. ISBN 9241540613. 
89. ↑ published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization ; first draft prep. by L. Friberg (1991). Inorganic mercury. Environmental Health Criteria 118. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 9241571187. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
90. ↑ Bluhm, RE; et al. (1992). "Elemental Mercury Vapour Toxicity, Treatment, and Prognosis After Acute, Intensive Exposure in Chloralkali Plant Workers. Part I: History, Neuropsychological Findings and Chelator effects". Hum Exp Toxicol. 11: 201. doi:10.1177/096032719201100308. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
91. ↑ Bluhm, Re; Bobbitt, Rg; Welch, Lw; Wood, Aj; Bonfiglio, Jf; Sarzen, C; Heath, Aj; Branch, Ra (1992). "Elemental mercury vapour toxicity, treatment, and prognosis after acute, intensive exposure in chloralkali plant workers. Part I: History, neuropsychological findings and chelator effects". Human & experimental toxicology. 11 (3): 201–10. doi:10.1177/096032719201100308. PMID 1352115. 
92. ↑ "Mercury: Laws and regulations". United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 16, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 
93. ↑ "Reductions in Mercury Emissons". International Joint Commission on the Great Lakes. 
94. ↑ "Directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment". 2002/95/EC.  Check date values in: |date= (help) Article 4 Paragraph 1. e.g. "Member States shall ensure that, from July 1, 2006, new electrical and electronic equipment put on the market does not contain lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) or polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)."
95. ↑ "Mercury compounds in European Union:". EIA Track. 2007. Retrieved 2008-05-30.  External link in |publisher= (help)
96. ↑ Jones H. (July 10, 2007). "EU bans mercury in barometers, thermometers". Reuters. Retrieved 2008-05-30. 
97. ↑ "Norway to ban mercury". EU Business. December 21, 2007. Retrieved 2008-05-30.  External link in |publisher= (help)^{[dead link]}
98. ↑ Berg, T; Fjeld, E; Steinnes, E (2006). "Atmospheric mercury in Norway: contributions from different sources". The Science of the total environment. 368 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.09.059. PMID 16310836.